Chloroperlidae

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Chloroperlidae
Chloroperlidae.jpg
An instar of Chloroperlidae
Chloroperlidae - Xanthoperla apicalis.jpg
Xanthoperla apicalis
Scientific classification e
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Plecoptera
Superfamily:
Family: Chloroperlidae
DeWalt, 2013
Subfamilies & genera

Subfamily

Alloperla
Haploperla
Isoptena
Neaviperla
Siphonoperla
Suwallia
Sweltsa
Xanthoperla

Subfamily

Kathroperla
Paraperla
Utaperla

Incertae sedis

†

Chloroperlidae are a family of stoneflies, commonly known as green stoneflies, with more than 200 species and 22 genera.[1][2][3] They appear green to yellow in colour, and are popularly used among fisherman as bait for trout fishing.[4] Green stoneflies live in the benthic zone of the cold streams and rivers of five continents and four zoogeographical regions,[5] emerging from the water to live in the riparian zone as adults.[6] They are sensitive to pollutants, making them an indicator species for determining the quality of water bodies.[6][4] Chloroperlidae are hemimetabolous, having no pupal stage, but instead hatch from eggs as nymphs and mature directly into adults.[7] They are omnivorous, feeding on small organisms and plant particles, and become more carnivorous as they mature.[8][6] The classification of Chloroperlidae is contested, with some believing that they should be considered as members of different orders, as opposed to the order Plecoptera that they currently belong to.[2]

Physical description[]

Chloroperlidae are small to medium-sized ranging from 6 to 20 mm[6] or 10 to 20 mm[9] and have a distinct green colour for their wings, which gives the common name green stoneflies.[3] They can also be yellow, and fly fishermen commonly refer to them as yellow sallflies or yellow sallies.[10] Chloroperlidae undergo incomplete metamorphosis, only having three life stages (egg, nymph, and adult), but no pupal stage.[7] In the nymph stage, they have almost-parallel hindwing pads to their brown to yellow body, short legs and cerci smaller than their abdomen.[3] As they become adults, their body and wings become oval-shaped and can be somewhat green, yellow, or white.[3]

Taxonomy[]

Chloroperlidae is a family of stoneflies, typically referred to as green stoneflies, and is part of the order Plecoptera, splitting off into its lineage roughly 150 million years ago.[2] This classification as a separate family was originally made in 1912.[2] There is some contention about Chloroperlidae’s classification, however, with some arguing it is a subfamily within Perlidae, some arguing it is its own family within Perlomorpha, and others believing it is its own family within Perloidea.[2] It is composed of more than 200 species and 22 genera.[3][2][1] They are defined mainly by the lack of distinct pigment patterns on the thorax, a relatively short cerci compared to the abdomen, slender labial palps, wings pads which are not divergent from the midline and short legs.[11] Adult Chloroperlidae are typically yellowish green in coloration, which gives them their common name.

Worldwide distribution[]

More than 200 species of the Chloroperlidae family are distributed predominantly in the Holarctic region.[1][5] Nearly 80 species distributed among the Nearctic and East Palaearctic Regions are in the genera Sweltsa and Alloperla.[5] Four genera and 19 species still exist in Europe.[5]

Estimated Chloroperlidae species divided among continents are 95 in North America, 2 in Central America, 19 in Europe, 1 in Africa, and 89 in Asia.[5] Estimated Chloroperlidae species by zoogeographical region are 20 in the Palaearctic Region, 95 in the Nearctic Region, 2 in the Neotropical Region, with a total species number of 206 in the World.[5] Estimated Chloroperlidae genera by zoogeographical region are 14 in Palaearctic, 12 in Nearctic, 2 in Neotropical, 2 in Oriental, with a total genera number of 17 in the World.

Habitat[]

Nymphs are aquatic and inhabit a wide variety of habitats, especially in the stony bottoms of cold mountain streams and/or lakes.[6][12] The family Chloroperlidae is not very tolerant to pollutants, making them a good indicator species of very high water quality.[6][4] Suwallia pallidula nymphs dwell in the hyporheic zone emerging only when are going to become winged adults.[13] This shows the importance of the hyporheic zone prior to their emergence, but also the challenges for further research on early instars and voltinism.[13] As winged adults, they migrate onto land where they dwell on rocks, debris, and plants near the water.[3][7]

Life cycle[]

Chloroperlidae are hemimetabolous (undergo incomplete metamorphosis), with no pupal stage and three life stages: egg, nymph, and adult.[7]

The Chloroperlidae life cycle begins with an egg. Adult females deposit egg sacs containing fertilized eggs into a water body either by dropping the sac above the water body, releasing eggs from the banks of a water body, or by depositing egg sacs along the gravel substrate.[7] If circumstances are unfavourable for hatching, the eggs may enter diapause for 3 to 12 months.[7] Otherwise, the eggs may hatch within 2-3 weeks or a few months.[7]

After the eggs hatch, the nymph stage of the cycle begins. Chloroperlidae nymphs reside in the benthic portions of the water body among and within the gravel and sediment.[6] As the nymphs mature, they undergo 12-23 developmental stages,[14] or instars, and progressively grow larger and more mature by shedding their exoskeleton.[7] They also grow wing pads as they develop, which become functioning wings as adults.[7] After approximately one year of development, the nymphs undergo their final moult and become adults, emerging from the water body in the spring or summer.[6] Male Chloroperlidae mature faster, and therefore emerge earlier than females.[14]

The objective for Chloroperlidae adults is to find a mate and reproduce.[6][14] Most Chloroperlidae do not feed; their sole focus is mating.[6][14] However, some species with longer adult stages do feed, to maintain enough energy to both evade predators and find a mate.[8] To attract a mate, males land on a rock or piece of vegetation near the water and produce sounds by striking their abdomen against an object of their choice.[7] The sound attracts nearby females of the same species, and an interested female will make the same sound back to the male.[7] Once they locate each other, they mate, with the male depositing his sperm directly into the female's reproductive organs to fertilize her eggs.[7] Mating Chloroperlidae are often found in swarms, clustered around vegetation near a water body.[14] Chloroperlidae are polygynous, and males that emerge early are larger and more likely to be successful in reproducing with multiple females.[14][15] After fertilization, the eggs are deposited in the nearest body of water.[7] The flies then die soon after mating, as the adult stage of Chloroperlidae lasts only 1-4 weeks.[7]

Feeding strategies[]

Chloroperlidae consume food, but they are also an important food source for many fish and invertebrates in freshwater ecosystems.[7]

Nymphs[]

Most nymph Chloroperlidae are omnivores with mostly fine particulate organic matter, coarse particulate organic matter, and unicellular organisms found in their gut content.[8] However, as they mature, they typically become carnivores consuming chironomid midge, mayfly, caddisfly, and stonefly larvae.[6] The mouths of carnivorous nymphs are usually for grasping and penetrating prey; however, mouths of herbivores are used for scraping and grinding.[7] Specifically for Isoptena serricornis, the diet of the nymphs mostly contained detritus, unicellular organisms.[16] For nymphs of intermediate or large size, Chironomidae larvae have also been consumed.[16]

Adults[]

Although adults generally do not feed,[6] predatory nymph species have been found to continue to feed actively as adults.[8] Specifically for Isoptena serricornis, the diet of adults mostly contained pollen grains and some fungi, detritus and Cyanoprokaryota.[16] Males typically have lower food content than female, suggesting that females had greater reproductive effort.[16]

References[]

  1. ^ a b c Wang, Ying; Cao, Jin-Jun; Li, Wei-Hai (28 February 2018). "Complete Mitochondrial Genome of Suwallia teleckojensis (Plecoptera: Chloroperlidae) and Implications for the Higher Phylogeny of Stoneflies". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 19 (3): 680. doi:10.3390/ijms19030680. PMC 5877541. PMID 29495588.
  2. ^ a b c d e f "Mindat.org". www.mindat.org. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  3. ^ a b c d e f "Family Chloroperlidae - Green Stoneflies". bugguide.net. Retrieved 2021-03-26.
  4. ^ a b c "Stonefly Life Cycle & Fly Fishing Stonefly Patterns". FrostyFly. 2016-10-01. Retrieved 2021-04-18.
  5. ^ a b c d e f Fochetti, Romolo; Tierno de Figueroa, José Manuel (January 2008). "Global diversity of stoneflies (Plecoptera; Insecta) in freshwater". Hydrobiologia. 595 (1): 365–377. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9031-3. hdl:2067/1437. ISSN 0018-8158. S2CID 23143270.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Families of Plecoptera of British Columbia". ibis.geog.ubc.ca. Retrieved 2021-03-26.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p "Stonefly (Plecoptera)". EcoSpark. Retrieved 2021-03-26.
  8. ^ a b c d Figueroa, J. M. Tierno de; López-Rodríguez, M. J. (2019-01-01). "Trophic ecology of Plecoptera (Insecta): a review". The European Zoological Journal. 86 (1): 79–102. doi:10.1080/24750263.2019.1592251. S2CID 145996094.
  9. ^ Glime, Janice (2015-01-01). "Volume 2, Chapter 11-6: Aquatic Insects: Hemimetabolous Insects - Plecoptera". Bryophyte Ecology Subchapters.
  10. ^ Webmaster, David Ratz. "Yellow Sallfly - Montana Field Guide". fieldguide.mt.gov. Retrieved 2021-04-18.
  11. ^ "Guide to Aquatic Invertebrates of the Upper Midwest". dep.wv.gov. Retrieved 2021-04-14.
  12. ^ "Plecoptera". extension.usu.edu. Retrieved 2021-03-26.
  13. ^ a b DeWalt, R.; Stewart, Kenneth (1995-01-16). "Life histories of stoneflies (Plecoptera) in the Rio Conejos of southern Colorado". Great Basin Naturalist. 55 (1): 1–18. doi:10.5962/bhl.part.22804. ISSN 0017-3614.
  14. ^ a b c d e f "The Life Cycle of the Stonefly". Sciencing. Retrieved 2021-03-26.
  15. ^ Yoshimura, Mayumi; Isobe, Yu; Oishi, Tadashi (1 April 2003). "The Relation among Emergence Date, Days until First Effective Mating, Fecundity and Adult Longevity in Isoperla aizuana and Sweltsa sp. (Plecoptera)". Zoological Science. 20 (4): 471–479. doi:10.2108/zsj.20.471. ISSN 0289-0003. PMID 12719650. S2CID 10311932.
  16. ^ a b c d Derka, Tomáš; Tierno De Figueroa, José Manuel; Krno, Il'ja (May 2004). "Life Cycle, Feeding and Production ofIsoptena serricornis(Pictet, 1841) (Plecoptera, Chloroperlidae)". International Review of Hydrobiology. 89 (2): 165–174. doi:10.1002/iroh.200310726. ISSN 1434-2944.
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