Dervish movement (Somali)

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Dervish movement
Dhaqdhaqaaqii Daraawiishta
1895[1]–1920
CapitalEyl (1905-1909)
Taleh (1913-1920)
Religion
See religion
Leader 
• 1895-1920[1]
See polyarchy
History 
• Established
1895[1]
• Disestablished
9 February 1920
Area
• Total
50,000[2] sq mi (130,000 km2)
Preceded by
Succeeded by
British Somaliland
Italian Somaliland
British Somaliland
Today part of Somalia
 Somaliland
 Ethiopia

The Dervish movement (Somali: Dhaqdhaqaaqii Daraawiishta) was a popular movement that developed in eastern Somaliland between 1895 and 1920,[3][4][5] which had a polyarchy of leaders,[6] who called for independence from the British, Abyssinian and Italian colonies, and the establishment of a state in Nugaal.[7][3][4][5] They had a ruling council called the Khususi consisting of decision-makers, added an adviser from the Ottoman Empire named Mehmet Ali and thus formed an emirate, sultanate and chieftainship[6] which later inspired the Somali Youth League,[8] an influential progenitor to the state of Somalia.[5][4][9]

From 1895, the Dervish began as a court of appeal[1] and 1900 onwards, acquired firearms and then attacked the Ethiopian army in the Jigjiga region. The Ethiopians retreated and then gave the Dervishes their first military victory.[10][11] Prior to hostilities, from 1899 to 1901, a two-year economic embargo was incurred upon the Dhulbahante vis-a-vis port trade.[12] By mid 1901, the British sought out Somalis, Anglosphere and Boer volunteers, Sikhs, and Yaos[13] as coalition partners against Darawiish. Punitive attacks were launched against Dervish strongholds in 1904.[4][5] The Dervish movement suffered losses in the field, regrouped into smaller units and resorted to guerrilla warfare. In 1905 at the Illig treaty, European powers ceded Nugaal Valley to Darawiish, wedged between Italian and British colonies[14] as a form of placation.[15] and thereafter bolstered.[4] In 1908, the Darawiish envoy Hersi Liban delivered antagonistic letters to the British Commissioners,[16] resulting in the British retreating to the coastal regions, leaving the interior regions in the hands of locals and the Dervishes. The First World War shifted the attention of the British elsewhere, although upon its conclusion, in 1920 the British launched a massive combined arms offensive on the Taleh fortress, a stronghold of the Dervish movement.[5][10] The offensive caused significant casualties among the Dervishes, although the Dervish leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan managed to escape. His death in 1921 due to either malaria or influenza ended the Darawiish.[4][5][17]

The Dervish movement temporarily created a "proto-state" in early 20th-century with a fluctuating population.[18] It was one of the bloodiest and longest militant movements in sub-Saharan Africa during the colonial era, one that overlapped with World War I. The British expenditure on expeditions unadjusted for inflation cost $50,000,000[2] and warfare over the decades killed nearly a third of British Somaliland's population.[17][19][20]

History[]

Origins[]

Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, leader of the Dervish movement.
Aw Abdille Ibrahim (pictured) and Yusuf Agararan were governors in the Cal (Darawiish) region.

According to Abdullah A. Mohamoud, traditional Somali society followed a decentralized structure and a nomadic lifestyle dependent on livestock and pastureland. It was also predominantly Muslim.[4][5] As the European colonial powers expanded their reach in the Horn of Africa, the region of Somalia came under the influence of the Ethiopians, the British and the Italians. Ethiopia on its part, focused more on the Ogaden region as their forces were ambushed and defeated by the Geledi in the battle of luuq despite having a large force of riflemen,artillery and horsemen. This caused Ethiopia to rethink its strategy of conquering the coastal southern region and focused on the hinterlands of the Ogaden.[21] With foreign rule came the centralization of the economy, which greatly upset the traditional lifestock and pastureland based livelihood of the Somalis. The foreign powers were also all Christians, which created additional suspicions amongst the Somali religious elite.[5] The Ethiopian troops had already proved to be a bane for the Somalis as they were the traditional raiders and plunderers of their grazing herds due to the Dervish raids. The arrival of the colonial powers and the consequent partitioning of Africa greatly affected the Somalis, with Sufi poets such as Faarax Nuur writing poems expressing his opposition to foreign rule.[22] The Dervish movement can thus be seen as a reaction against the establishment of foreign control in Ethiopia.[5]

Prior to it being a polity, the Darawiish began as a legal court in 1895 primarily in Dhulbahante lands which was amicable towards European powers and primarily strove to put down raids.[1] The Dervish movement was led by a Sufi poet and religious nationalist leader named Mohammed Abdullah Hassan,[23] also known as Sayid Maxamad Cabdulle Xasan.[4] According to Said M. Mohamed, he was born in Sacmadeeqo sometime between 1856 and 1864 to a father who was a religious teacher.[4] He studied in Somali Islamic seminaries and later went on Hajj to Mecca where he met Shaykh Muhammad Salah of the Salihiya Islamic Tariqah, which states The Encyclopedia Britannica was a "militant, reformist, and puritanical Sufi order".[24][4] Although authors such as Richard Shultz and Andrea Dew attributed Dervishism to a "religious revival",[17] other authors such as Jardine downplayed a religious undertone.[25] When Hasan returned to the Horn of Africa, the Somali tradition states that he saw Somali children being converted to Christianity by missionaries in the British colony. Hasan began preaching against this religious conversion and the British presence. He earned the ire of the British colonial administration who termed him the 'mad mullah', and his Sufi teachings were also opposed by the rival Qadiriya Tariqah – another traditional Sufi group of the region, states Said M. Mohamed.[4][26] Another version of the early events link the illegal sale of a gun to Hasan by a corrupt Somali officer in 1899, who reported his gun as stolen rather than purchased by Hasan.[27] The British authorities demanded the gun's return, while Hasan replied that the British should leave the country, a sentiment he had previously claimed in 1897 when he declared himself "the leader of a sovereign nation".[27]

Movement[]

Taleh fortress, the Dervish capital.

Prior to hostilities, The British empire incurred an economic embargo upon Dhulbahante vis-a-vis the trading ports from 1899 until mid 1901.[12] The constituent clans of the Dervish during the formative years belonged to sections of the Ogaden, Dhulbahante, Habr Je'lo and Habr Yunis clans:

He acquired some notoriety by seditious preaching in Berbera in 1895, after which he returned to his tariga in Kob Faradod, in the Dolbahanta. Here he gradually acquired influence by stopping inter-tribal warfare, and eventually started a religious movement in which the Rer Ibrahim (Mukahil Ogaden), Ba Hawadle (Miyirwalal Ogaden) and the Ali Gheri (Dolbahanta) were the first to join. His emissaries also soon succeeded in winning over the Adan Madoba, notable amongst whom was Haji Sudi, his trusted lieutenant, and the Ahmed Farih and Rer Yusuf, all Habr Toljaala, and the Musa Ismail of the Eastern Habr Yunis, Habr Gerhajis, with Sultan Nur.[28]

Between 1900 and 1913, they operated from temporary local centers such as Aynabo and Illig in Nugaal, contemporary east coast of Puntland.[29][18]

Dervish Khususi, Haji Sudi on the left with his brother in-law Duale Idres. Aden, 1892.

The Dervishes wore white turban and its army utilized horses for movement. They assassinated opposing clan leaders.[18] Dervish soldiers used the dhaanto and geeraar traditional dance-song to raise their esprit de corps and sometimes sang it on horseback.[30] Hasan commanded the Dervish movement soldiers in a martial manner, ensuring that they were religiously committed, powered up for warfare and men of character sworn with an oath of allegiance.[17] To ensure unity among the administrative divisions troops, instead of letting them identify themselves by their different tribes, they identified by new names such as Dharbash, Indhabadan etc.[31][32] The movement obtained firearms from various sources such as Sultan Boqor Osman Mahmud of Majerteen Sultanate, as well as the Ottoman Empire and Sudan. They were also supplied with arms and munitions by two Habr Yunis men of the Musa Arreh clan, namely, Haji Hirsi of Maydh and Bulhan Ali, they both operated with in Yemen, the former being stationed at Mukalla and the latter at Aden.[33] In addition, the Dervishes also obtained significant armaments' from the Adan Madoba section of the Habr Je'lo clan where, according to the contemporary source Official History of the Operations in Somaliland: "Of the former the Adan Madoba were not only responsible for supplying him with arms, but also assisted him on all his raids."[34][27] The Dervish fought many battles starting in 1899 against the Ethiopian troops.[17] In 1904, the Dervishes were almost annihilated in Jidbaley. Hasan retreated into the Italian Somaliland and entered into a treaty with them, who accepted the control of Eyl port by the Dervishes. This port served as the Dervish headquarters between 1905 and 1909.[18] During this period, Hasan rebuilt the Dervish movement army, the Dervishes raided and plundered their neighboring clans, and in 1909 assassinated their archrival Sufi leader Uways al-Barawi and burnt his settlement, according to Mohamed Mukhtar.[35]

In 1913, after the British withdrawal to the coast, the Dervishes created a walled fortress with fourteen fortresses in Taleh by importing masons from Yemen. This served as their headquarters.[36][37] The main fortress, Silsilat, included conical tower granaries that opened only at the top, wells with sulfurous water, cattle watering stations, a guard tower, walled garden, and tombs. It became the residence of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, his wives and family.[36] The Taleh structures also included the Hed Kaldig (literally, "place of blood"), where those whom Hasan disliked were executed with or without torture and their bodies left to the hyenas.[36] According to Muktar, Hasan's execution orders also targeted dozens of his former friends and allies.[35] The town of Taleh was mostly destroyed after a RAF aerial bombardment in early February 1920, though Hasan had already left his compound by then.[36][38]

'The Mullah's fortifications at Taleh'. The tombs of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, Sultan Nur and unnamed Habr Je'lo and Hawiye notabales can be seen in the fortress

Banadir Resistance[]

In southern Somalia, there was another resistance, the Bimal or Banadir Resistance. This was a large resistance lead by the Bimal clan spanning 3 decades of war. The Bimal being the main element, eventually neighboring adjacent tribes also joined the Bimal their struggle against the Italians. The Italians feared that the Banadir Resistance would join hands with the Dervish Movement in the Nugaal. The Sayyid and leader of the Dervishes even sent an extensive letter to the Bimal.

Risala lil-Bimal[]

His letter to the Bimal was documented as the most extended exposition of his mind as a Muslim thinker and religious figure. The letter is till this day still preserved. It is said that the Bimal thanks to their size being numerically powerful, traditionally and religiously devoted fierce warriors and having possession of much resources have intrigued Mahamed Abdulle Hassan. But not only that the Bimal themselves mounted an extensive and major resistance against the Italians, especially in the first decade of the 19th century. The Italians carried many expeditions against the powerful Bimal to try and pacify them. Because of this the Bimal had all the reasons to join the Dervish struggle and by doing so to win their support over the Sayyid wrote a detailed theological statement to put forward to the Bimal tribe who dominated the strategic Banaadir port of Merca and its surroundings.[39]

One of the Italian's greatest fears was the spread of 'Dervishism' ( had come to mean revolt) in the south and the strong Bimaal tribe of Benadir whom already were at war with the Italians, while not following the religious message or adhering to the views of Muhammad Abdullah Hassan, understood greatly his goal and political tactics. The dervishes in this case were engaged in supplying arms to the Bimaal.[40] The Italians wanted to bring in an end to the Bimaal revolt and at all cost prevent a Bimal-Dervish alliance, which lead them to use the forces of Obbia and the Mijertein as prevention.[40]

Wars against the British Empire, Italy and Ethiopia[]

The last residents of the Silsilad fort were Haji Yusuf Barre, the singlehanded defender of Taleh, Mohamud Hosh (pictured), the last castellan of Taleh and Jama Biixi Kidin, an abandoned Darawiish child prisoner.

In August 1898, the Dervish army occupied Burao, an important centre of British Somaliland, giving Muhammad Abdullah Hassan control over the city's watering places. Hassan also succeeded in making peace between the local clans and initiated a large assembly, where the population was urged to join the war against the British. His forces were supplied with the simple uniforms consisting of "a white cotton outer garment (worn by most Somali men of the time anyway), a white turban, a tasbih (or rosary), and a rifle."[41]

The historic Daarta Sayyidka fortress (Dervish fort) in Eyl, Puntland.

In March 1900, Hassan along with his dervish forces attacked an Ethiopian outpost near Jijiga. Capt. Malcolm McNeill who commanded the Somali Field Force against Hassan reported that the Dervish were completely defeated, and that they have suffered a heavy loss amounting to 2,800 killed, according to the Ethiopians.[42] Similar raids by the dervish would continue despite the losses across the Somali peninsula until 1920. McNeill notes that by June 1900, Hassan made his position even stronger than before his March 1900 defeat and had "practically dominated the whole of the southern portion of our Protectorate".[42]

The British administration started to coordinate with the Italians and Ethiopians, and by 1901 a joint Anglo-Ethiopian force began to coordinate plans to eradicate the anti-colonialists or limit their reach farther west to the Ogaden or borderland of northern Kenya. Lack of supplies and access to fresh drinking water in the large expanse of flat land made this a challenging feat for the British and their allies. In contrast, Hassan and his dervishes adapted harsh conditions of the land by eating carcasses of beasts and drinking water from the dead bellies of animals.[42] Despite possessing superior weapons, including Maxim machine guns, until 1905, the Anglo-Ethiopian forces were still struggling to gain hold on the dervish movement.

Britain launched at least two major offensives aimed at either killing or capturing Hassan between 1913 and 1920. Though they almost succeeded, Hassan proved elusive. Finally, the British Cabinet approved of air operations against the Dervish movement. It is said that the challenge of the Dervishes presented the British with a suitable environment to trial its new doctrine of warfare, which stressed "the use of aircraft as the primary arm, usually supplemented by ground forces, according to particular requirements."[43]

In the Somaliland campaign of 1920, 12 Airco DH.9A aircraft were used to support the British forces. Within a month, the British had occupied the capital of the Dervish State and Hassan had retreated to the west.[43]

Nur Hedik, commander of Dooxato, (white shirt), wearing the emblematic Kuuk Darawiish prayer bead on his left wrist and the emblematic Darawiish duubcad turban on his head.

Demise[]

Tribal chief Akil Haji Mohamed Bullaleh, also known as Haji Warabe, who led the Hagoogane raid that put an end to the Dervish movement

Korahe raid[]

In the early 20th century during the Dervish wars, the British and Abbyssinians came to an agreement that cross border camel raiding between the Somali tribes was to be banned and that the offending tribes would be punished by their respective governments. The Abyssinians only nominally having control over the Haud failed to meet their end of the agreement and this resulted in the Dervish and Ogaden alliance raiding with impunity while the Isaaq and Dhulbahante were unable to avenge the raids due to the British Camel Corps restraining them and returning looted Ogaden livestock. The secretary administrator of British Somaliland, Douglas James Jardine noted that the Isaaq sub clans inhabiting the Haud were in fact militarily superior and stronger than their Ogaden counterparts. After a series of Dervish-Ogaden raids, tribal elders held talks with the British Government, forcing the latter to lift the ban and let the clans deal with the Dervish-Ogaden themselves. The man chosen to lead the tribal forces was Akil (tribal chief) Haji Mohammad Bullaleh (also known as Haji Warabe) who himself had previous quarrels with the Mullah.[44][45]

After the bombing campaign of the Taleh fort the Dervish retreated in to the Ogaden territory in Abyssinia and the Mullah was able to attract followers from his tribe. The catalyst for the Hagoogane raid happened on May 20, 1920, when a Dervish-Ogaden force raided the Ba Hawadle sub clan of the Ogaden who were under the protection of the Isaaq, killing women and children in the process. Haji Warabe assembled an army composed of 3000 Habr Yunis, Habr Je'lo and Dhulbahante warriors. The army set out from Togdheer, on the dawn of July 20, 1920, Haji's army reached Korahe just west of Shineleh where the Dervish and their tribal allies were camped and commenced to attack with them with force. The Dervish-Ogaden numbering 800 were defeated swiftly and only a 100 survived the onslaught and fled south. Haji and his army looted 60,000 livestock and 700 rifles from their defeated foes. During the midst of the battle Haji Warabe entered the Mullah's tent to face his adversary but found the tent empty with the Mullah's tea still hot.[46] The Mullah had fled to Imi where he would die due to influenza shortly afterwards. Haji Warabe's Habr Yunis and Habr Je'lo warriors divided the livestock and rifles amongst themselves denying the Dhulbahante soldiers their share as mentioned by Salaan Carrabey in his Guba poem addressed to Ali Dhuh.[47] The looting dealt a severe blow to them economically, a blow from which they did not recover.[48][49][50][51]

Territory[]

Yellow cartouche
Ibraahim Muxamed map
Red cartouche
Ministero delle colonie (Ministry of the Colonies (Italy)) map
Illig treaty ceded Boocame District, Taleh District, Xudun District, Las Anod District, Bookh district (of Ethiopia) and Nugaaleed-Bari territories to Darawiish

Darawiish territory encompassed fifty thousand square miles.[2] and the 1905 treaty between the Italians and Darawiish, which was terminated within a year, concurred that Darawiish territory was limited to the Nugaal, specifically from Ras Garad to Ras Gabbe (in modern-day Puntland), to Xudun (Hudun) to Tifafleh, and from Tifafleh to Docmo (in modern-day Bookh district of Ethiopia).[52] The intermediary Dervish capital, Illig, was "situated at the mouth of the Nogal",[29] whilst the subsequent permanent Dervish capital, Taleh, was described by Noriyuki Katagiri as being the "heart of the Nugaal".[53]

An official letter from the Dervishes to Eric Swayne states the Dervish objective was the Nugaal and Buuhoodle:[7]

this letter comes from ... the Dervishes to General Swayne ... They also informed us that you said you would leave the country , I mean the country of the Nugaal and Buuhoodle and its neighborhoods. This news made us extremely joyous.

— Dervish state on their demarcation

Notes by H. E Stanton, a British Chief of Staff officer states the following about territories in anti-Dervish expedition:[54]

It was obvious from the first that the main operations would be conducted in the Nogal district. This tract of country was very badly and inaccurately shown on existing maps.

— H. E Stanton on Dervish positions

According to British lieutenant-colonel G.T Forestier Walker, the maps for anti-Darawiish expeditions were called individually Nogal no. 1 map, Nogal no. 2 map, and Nogal no. 3 map, and included the Gumburu locality:[54]

All demands for maps were met with great promptitude, and, in the case of the three Nogal maps, which were compiled in the field and sent home for reproduction,... Nogal No. 1 was compiled in the field and sent home for rapid production ... I had Nogal No. 2 compiled from all the above sources, with the addition of Wellby's route, which had been accidentally omitted from No. 1. ... I had no hesitation in making his work the basis of the new map, Nogal No. 3, and the work previously compiled in No. 2 was fitted on to it. ... They went to Gumburu (see Nogal sketch) ...

— lieutenant-colonel G.T Forestier Walker on Darawiish territorial boundaries & jurisdiction

According to Secretary for War H. O. Arnold-Forster, the suspension of hostilities against Dervishes pragmatically meant withdrawing from the Nogal:[55] Neville Lyttelton's War Office, and General Egerton described the Nugaal as the "base of operations" against Dervishes,[56] and by Dervishes, respectively.[57] The 1900s British media industry stated that a surprise ambush by British colonial troops into the Nugaal could end the colonial versus Dervish war, whilst the British parliament was anxious for a "damaging blow" into the Nugaal.[58] John Spencer described Nugaal Valley natives as the Dervish leaders' people,[59] Ahmed Ismail Samatar stated that Dervish rule was wedged in the Nugaal between Italian and British colonies,[14] and Harold Nelson that Darawiish (Dervish) gained an "autonomous protected status" in the Nugaal.[60] Lee Cassanelli stated that European colonial powers ceded the Nugaal to Darawiish (Dervish) as a form of placation,[15] with Raphael Chijioke Njoku stating likewise.[61] Other authors who have described the Dervish domain as Nugaal include Pilaszewicz and B. W. Andrzejewski[62] and professor Francesca Declich.[63]

Ismaaciil, son of darawiish peace-time prime minister Xaashi Suni Fooyaan.
The scout of Darawiish head of intelligence, Serar Shawe.
Jama Biixi Kidin, last resident of Silsilad

Native Somali sources concur with British colonial sources on Darawiish / Dervish jurisdiction being the Nugaal and Ciid regions, such as the 3rd line of the poem Haddaan waayey:[3][a]

3 Haddaan waayay Ciidoo, naqliga inaan Nugaal daaqo
4 Miyaan waayay neefaan xarbada, naallo ugu fuulo ?

3 If I fell short of establishing as (Darawiish) designated territories 'Iid, and Nugaal Valley, for grazing
4 Did I not successfully mount my steeds, gloriously riding them into battle?

An interview with Darawiish veteran Cabdi-Yaar Cali Guuleed in 1954:[3][a]

Weligood Daraawiishi waxay haanka ku hayeen dalka loo yaqaan Nugaal iyo dhulka ciidda cas midna inaysan gacantooda ka bixin

Since its beginnings, the ultimate objective of Darawiish had always been that Nugaal and the reddish soil of 'Iid should forever remain in their firm grip

The sister of the Sayid Mohammed, Caasha, in a 1973 interview:[3][a]

Ciid, Nugaal iyo dhulkii dalsanka ahaa waa ka carareen markay degeen Ayl iyo Ilig ... dabadeed maalintii dambe ayay caynka hoosta ka soo geliyeen oo Ciid iyo Nugaal shafka dhigeen

They fled 'Iid and Nugaal, the land they viewed as viable when they settled at Eyl and Illig ... afterwards, they slowly slithered back and declared Ciid and Nugaal as their benchmark

Administration[]

Jama Sugulle (pictured) the head of the 1960s Somalia Darawiish police, son of Faarax Sugulle, the head of haroun (government).

A 3 May 1899 joint Dervish-Dhulbahante letter to James Hayes Sadler stated their leadership consisted of a Sultan, chieftains, an emir (the Sayid / Mullah), and a government, with the sultan being the first executive title mentioned.[6] An Evening Express excerpt by Walter Alfred Pearce referred to Diiriye Guure as the head of the Dhulbahante clan during this era.[64] Sadler stated that the sheikhs (chieftains) numbered at a dozen individuals.[65] The Dervish movement temporarily created a Somali "proto-state", according to Markus Hoehne.[18] It was a state with a fluctuating population given the guerilla style militant approach of Dervishes and their practice of retreating to sparsely inhabited hinterland whenever the colonial forces with superior firearms overwhelmed them. At the head of this state was the sayid/emir Hasan with the power of final decision. Hasan surrounded himself with a group of commanders for the militant operations supported by the khusuusi or the Dervish council. Islamic judges settled disputes and enforced the Islamic law in this Dervish state. According to Robert Hess, two of Hasan's chief advisors were Sultan Nur – previously Habr Yunis chief, and Haji Sudi Shabeel also known as Ahmad Warsama from Adan Madoba Habr Je'lo who was fluent in English.[66][67]

According to Charles Egerton, the field marshal of the British empires military operations against the Darawiish, the haroun was a government and as such, defeating the Haroun by extension meant defeating the entire Darawiish army as well:

but the Haroun, which was his emblem of power and seat of government, offered a fairly large though movable objective. Though the Mullah himself might escape, the capture of the Haroun meant the destruction of his prestige, and, in all probability, his own final surrender.[68]

According to The Times from London, the heads of the haroun were Omar Doreh and Farah Mahamud Sugulle,[69] whose deputy was Carab Illaawe.[70]

In the official Dervish-written letter's description of the fall of Taleh in February 1920, in an April 1920 letter transcribed from the original Arabic script into Italian by the incumbent Governatori della Somalia, the British are described taking twenty-seven garesas or 27 houses from the Dhulbahante clan:[71][b]

 i Dulbohanta nella maggior parte si sono arresi agli inglesi e han loro consegnato ventisette garese (case) ricolme di fucili, munizioni e danaro.

 the Dhulbahante surrendered for the most part to the British and handed twenty-seven garesas (houses) full of guns, ammunition and money over to them.

According to Claude Edward Marjoribanks Dansey, the largest and most important Dervish administrative division was the elite Shiikhyaale (exclusively Dhulbahante), with other major divisions being Dooxato, Golaweyne, Miinanle which were likewise predominantly Dhulbahante.[31]

Religion[]

Scholars variously interpret the emergence and demise of the militant Dervish movement in Somalia. Some consider the "Sufi Islamic" ideology as the driver, others consider economic crisis to the nomadic lifestyle triggered by the occupation and "colonial predation" ideology as the trigger for the Dervish movement, while post-modernists state that both religion and nationalism created the Dervish movement.[5] The predominant Dervish sect, Salahiyya,[72] was according to an 1899 letter by James Hayes Sadler established 12 years prior, thus in 1887.[73] In their specific sect, they taught life sobriety and abstemiousness and teetotalism and nephalism pertaining to mind-altering substances.[73] This sect was espoused until 1910 when its founder in Mecca denounced the Darawiish via a letter.[72] Nonetheless, some authors trivialized the role of religion: out of the twenty-seven Dhulbahante garesas built by the Darawiish, not a single one of them had a mosque constructed within them, which according to one colonial official placed doubt that there was a religious impulse behind Dervish statehood.[74] The general consul of the Somali Coast Protectorate based in Berbera downplayed the role of antagonism to Christian missionaries to the Dervish that "originated in the Dolbahanta":[75]

I do not consider that the presence of this Mission in Berbera has had anything to do with the movement that originated in the Dolbahanta

— Consul general

Douglas Jardine likewise deemphasized a religious role, rather attributing Darawiish motives to "avarice" and them considering tribal confrontations as a "national sport".[25] By the time of the airstrikes on the Dhulbahante garesa, the emir (i.e. the Sayid / "Mad Mullah") referrred to himself as an Ahmadi.[75] (not to be confused with Mirza Ghulam messianic sect). Hasan left the urban settlement and moved to preach in the countryside. His influence spread in the rural parts and many elders, as well as youth, became his followers. Hasan converted the influenced youth from different clans into a Muslim brotherhood,[24] rallying to protect Islam from the influence of the Christian missionaries.[76] These formed the Hasan's armed resistance group to confront the colonial powers, and came to be known as Dervishes or Daraawiish, states Said M. Mohamed.[4] The Dervish movement aimed to remove the British and Italian influence from the region and restore the "Islamic system of government with Islamic education as its foundation", according to Mohamed-Rahis Hasan and Salada Robleh.[77]

Although in incendiary letters, emir/Sayid Hassan stated the "British infidels have destroyed our [Islamic] religion and made our children their children",[27] in the 3rd May 1899 Darawiish proclamation of independence letter, the Dervish acknowledged the existence of churches in the Somali Coast Protectorate, and claims to "assist" the "biladiyahs" (inhabitants).[78]

Legacy[]

Commander-poet Ismail Mire (pictured) administered the largest infantry Shiikhyaale and Adan Ali Gurey the second-largest, Golaweyne.
The Khatumo flag created by Rooda Xasan features a Dervish rider

According to the Somali historian and novelist Farah Awl the Sayyid had a significant influence on Sheikh Bashir through listening to his poetry and conversations, an influence that impelled him to a "war with the British". After studying in the markaz in Beer he opened a Sufi tariqa (order) sometime in the 1930s, where he preached his ideology of anti-imperialism, stressing the evil of colonial rule and the bringing of radical change through war. His ideology was shaped by a millennial bent, which according to Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm is the "hope of a complete and radical change in the world shorn of all its present deficiencies".[79] The Dervish movement would subsequently inspire Sheikh Bashir, the nephew of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan who was named by him, to wage his own 1945 Sheikh Bashir Rebellion together with Habr Je'lo tribesmen against the British authorities in Somaliland.[80][81]

Modern legacy[]

Logo of the Puntland Dervish Force, named in honor of the Dervishes

The Dervish legacy in Somalia and Somaliland has been influential. It was the "most important revivalist Islamic movements" in Somalia, state Hasan and Robleh.[82] The movement and particularly its leader has been controversial among Somalis. Some cherish it as the founder of modern Somali nationalism, while some others view it as an ambitious Muslim brotherhood militancy that destroyed Somalia's opportunity to move towards modernization and progress in favor of a puritanical Islamic state embedded with Islamic education – ideas enshrined in the contemporary constitution of Somalia.[82] Yet others such as Aidid consider the Dervish legacy was one of cruelty and violence against those Somalis who disagreed with or refused to submit to Hasan. These Somalis were "declared infidels" and Dervish soldiers were ordered by Hasan to "kill them, their children and women and snatch all their property", according to Shultz and Dew.[17][83] Another legacy that came out of the prolonged struggle and violence between the colonial powers and the Dervish movement, according to Abdullah A. Mohamoud, was the arming of the Somali clans followed by decades of destructive clan-driven militarism, violent turmoil, and high human costs well after the demise of the Dervish movement.[5][84]

Hasan and his Dervish movement have inspired a nationalistic following in contemporary Somalia.[85][86] The military government of Somalia led by Mohamed Siad Barre, for example, erected statues visible between Makka Al Mukarama and Shabelle Roads in the heart of Mogadishu. These were for three major Somali History icons: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan of the Dervish movement, Stone Thrower and Hawo Tako. The Dervish period spawned many war poets and peace poets involved in a struggle known as the Literary war which had a profound effect on Somali poetry and Literature, with Mohammed Abdullah Hassan featuring as the most prominent poet of that Age.[87][full citation needed] Many of these poems continue to be taught in Somali schools and have been recited by several Presidents of Somalia in speeches as well as in poetry competitions. In Somali Studies, the Dervish period is an important chapter in Somalia's history and its brief period of European hegemony, the latter of which inspired the resistance movement. The flag of Khatumo, designed by Rooda Xassan features a Dervish cavalryman.[88]

See also[]

Notes[]

  1. ^ a b c For 113 peer reviews on Jama Omar Issa, see the spelling "jaamac cumar ciise" on google scholar.
  2. ^ *To see the discussion for the Italian-language wiki community on the Caroselli garesa quote, see this link
    *The Caroselli source ascribes "garesa" to British captured forts; for a quote that Taleh fort was British captured, see quote "It was most fortunate that Tale was so easily captured" (Douglas Jardine, 1923).

References[]

  1. ^ a b c d Alfred Pearce, Walter (1903). Pilgrim, preacher and pretender. p. 7. after his return from Mecca in 1895, he retired to Kob Fardod, his place of residence and a village inhabited by Mullahs in the Dolbahanta country, 170 miles from Berbera. Up to this point Mahomed Abdullah had shown no very decided animus against the British suzerainty ovor Somaliland, and it appeared as if he were content with the homage paid to his learning and devotional sincerity by the Ogaden and Dolbahanta tribes. His fame continued to increase, and he won no little respect for his authority by the tribes electing to regard him as a court of appeal in their tribal disputes. Similarly, and with some measure of success, he strove to put down raiding.
  2. ^ a b c https://www.newspapers.com/clip/18743524/the-yates-center-news/
  3. ^ a b c d e Diiwaanka gabayadii, 1856-1921 , Maxamad Cabdulle Xasan · 1999 , PAGE 219
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Emmanuel Kwaku Akyeampong; Mr. Steven J. Niven (2012). Dictionary of African Biography. Oxford University Press. pp. 35–37. ISBN 978-0-19-538207-5.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Abdullah A. Mohamoud (2006). State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001). Purdue University Press. pp. 60–61, 70–72 with footnotes. ISBN 978-1-55753-413-2.
  6. ^ a b c Osman Omar, Mohamed (2001). The Scramble in the Horn of Africa; History of Somalia (1827-1977) (PDF). Indiana University. p. 333. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 July 2018. . This letter is sent by all the Dervishes, the Amir, and all the Dolbahanta to the Ruler of Berbera ... We are a Government, we have a Sultan, an Amir, and Chiefs, and subjects ... In his last letter the Mullah pretends to speak in the name of the Dervishes, their Amir (himself), and the Dolbahanta tribes. This letter shows his object is to establish himself as the Ruler of the Dolbahanta, and it has a Mahdist look
  7. ^ a b Samatar, Said (1992). In the Shadow of Conquest. . p. 68. this letter comes from ... the Dervishes to General Swayne ... They also informed us that you said you would leave the country , I mean the country of the Nugaal and Buuhoodle and its neighborhoods. This news made us extremely joyous.
  8. ^ I. M. Lewis, A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa, (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p.304.
  9. ^ Mukhtar, Mohamed (2003). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. p. 27.
  10. ^ a b Abdi Ismail Samatar (1989). The State and Rural Transformation in Northern Somalia, 1884-1986. Univ of Wisconsin Press. pp. 38–39. ISBN 978-0-299-11994-2.
  11. ^ Abdullah A. Mohamoud (2006). State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001). Purdue University Press. p. 71 with footnote 81. ISBN 978-1-55753-413-2.
  12. ^ a b of Commons, House (1901). Sessional Papers. p. 32. As matters stand, the gradual weaning of the tribes from the influence of the Mullah, coupled with the closing of our ports to those who shelter him or afford him assistance, are the measures I would rely on for the present in dealing with the Dolbahanta ... This done, and our hold established over the Ishak country, many of the Darod (Dolbahanta) sections may be expected to see that they have more to gain by peacefully trading with our ports than by following in the wake of this fanatical priest.
  13. ^ https://scientiamilitaria.journals.ac.za/pub/article/view/243
  14. ^ a b Smtar, Ahmed (1988). Socialist Somalia: Rhetoric and Reality. Zed Books. p. 32. the allocation of part of the Nugaal valley - in between the British and Italian Somalilands – to Dervish rule
  15. ^ a b Cassanelli, Lee (2016). The Shaping of Somali Society. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 247. This granted him and his dervish followers a tract of land in the Nugaal in exchange for his promise to keep the peace.
  16. ^ Douglas Jardine, p. 171, "This epistle was carried to His Majesty's Commissioner by a Dervish named Hirsi Liban ; and the Mullah cunningly arranged for it to be opened en route in the Dolbahanta country and read to the leading tribesmen, so that all might know of his contempt for our power and of his hostile intentions."
  17. ^ a b c d e f Richard H. Shultz; Andrea J. Dew (2009). Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat. Columbia University Press. pp. 67–68. ISBN 978-0-231-12983-1.
  18. ^ a b c d e Markus V. Hoehne (2016). John M Mackenzie (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Empire. John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe069. ISBN 978-11184-406-43.
  19. ^ Michel Ben Arrous; Lazare Ki-Zerbo (2009). African Studies in Geography from Below. African Books. p. 166. ISBN 978-2-86978-231-0.
  20. ^ Robert L. Hess (1964). "The 'Mad Mullah' and Northern Somalia". The Journal of African History. Cambridge University Press. 5 (3): 415–433. doi:10.1017/S0021853700005107. JSTOR 179976.
  21. ^ Abdi Abdulqadir Sheik-'Abdi (1993). Divine madness : Mohammed 'Abdulle Hassan (1856-1920). Atlantic Highlands, N.J. p. 69. ISBN 0862324432:0862324440 (pbk.) Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help).
  22. ^ Abdullah A. Mohamoud (2006). State Collapse and Post-conflict Development in Africa: The Case of Somalia (1960-2001). Purdue University Press. pp. 70 with footnote 79. ISBN 978-1-55753-413-2.
  23. ^ ʻAbdi ʻAbdulqadir Sheik-ʻAbdi (1993). Divine madness: Moḥammed ʻAbdulle Ḥassan (1856-1920). Zed Books. p. 67. ISBN 9780862324438. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
  24. ^ a b Sayyid Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan, Encyclopedia Britannica
  25. ^ a b Douglas Jardine, 1923, p. 50 "So few were the followers whom religion or politics attracted to the Mullah's standard, that we must look elsewhere for the motive which inspired the majority of his following ; and we find it in the cardinal sin of the Somali, avarice. Inter-tribal fighting and raiding constitute the Somali's national sport"
  26. ^ David Motadel (2014). Islam and the European Empires. Oxford University Press. pp. 17–18 with footnotes 49–50, 165–166. ISBN 978-0-19-966831-1.
  27. ^ a b c d Raphael Chijioke Njoku (2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-0-313-37857-7.
  28. ^ Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04. H. M. Stationery office. p. 49.
  29. ^ a b War Office, British. Official History of the operations in Somaliland. Harrison and Sons. Mullah had seized Illig, then a small fishing village situated at the mouth of the Nogal River and ... commenced to construct a formidable fortified camp there
  30. ^ Johnson, John William (1996). Heelloy: Modern Poetry and Songs of the Somali. Indiana University Press. p. 31. ISBN 1874209812.
  31. ^ a b Ciise, Jaamac (1976). Taariikhdii daraawiishta iyo Sayid Maxamad Cabdille Xasan. p. 175. largest and most important division, probably looked upon as the reserve composed of Ba-Ararsama, Aligheri, Kayad, Mahomed Gerad and many Hassan Agaz
  32. ^ Saadia Touval (1963). Somali nationalism: international politics and the drive for unity in the Horn of Africa. Harvard University Press. pp. 57–59. ISBN 9780674818255.
  33. ^ The scramble in the Horn of Africa:History of Somalia (1827-1877), By Mohamed Osman Omar, p.453.
  34. ^ Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04. H. M. Stationery office. p. 41.
  35. ^ a b Mohamed Haji Mukhtar (2003). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Scarecrow Press. pp. 196–197. ISBN 978-0-8108-6604-1.
  36. ^ a b c d W. A. MacFadyen (1931), Taleh, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 78, No. 2, pp. 125–128
  37. ^ Robert L. Hess (1968). Norman Robert Bennett (ed.). Leadership in Eastern Africa: Six Political Biographies. Boston University Press. pp. 90–97.
  38. ^ Michael Napier (2018). The Royal Air Force: A Centenary of Operations. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-1-4728-2539-1.
  39. ^ Samatar, Said S. (1992). In the Shadow of Conquest: Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa. The Red Sea Press. ISBN 978-0-932415-70-7.
  40. ^ a b Hess, Robert L. (1 January 1964). "The 'Mad Mullah' and Northern Somalia". The Journal of African History. 5 (3): 415–433, page 422. doi:10.1017/s0021853700005107. JSTOR 179976.
  41. ^ Martin, B. G. (13 February 2003). Muslim Brotherhoods in Nineteenth-Century Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521534512.
  42. ^ a b c Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313378577.
  43. ^ a b Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313378577.
  44. ^ The Mad Mullah Of Somaliland, Douglas Jardine, pp. 306
  45. ^ Personal and Historical Memoirs of an East Africa Administrator pp.112-113
  46. ^ Beachey, R. W. (1990). The warrior mullah: the Horn aflame, 1892-1920, by R.W Beachey, p.153. ISBN 9780947792435.
  47. ^ A Somali Poetic Combat Pt. I, II and III. pp.43
  48. ^ Irons, Roy (4 November 2013). Churchill and the Mad Mullah of Somaliland, p. 209. ISBN 9781783463800.
  49. ^ Nicolosi, Gerardo (2002). Imperialismo e resistenza in corno d'Africa: Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, P.305. ISBN 9788849803846.
  50. ^ "King's College London, King's collection: Ismay's summary as Intelligence Officer (1916-1918) of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan".
  51. ^ Beachey, R. W. (1990). The warrior mullah: the Horn aflame, 1892-1920, by R.W Beachey, p.153. ISBN 9780947792435.
  52. ^ Commonwealth office, Foreign and (1911). British and Foreign State Papers -. p. 548. a fixed residence at the point most convenient for communication with the sea, between Ras Garad and Ras Gabbe ... The territory assigned to Seyyid Mohammed and his followers is that of the Nogal ... to enter their territories ( those of the English ) in the country of the Nogal to feed their cattle there according to their former custom ... the said cattle shall not be permitted to pass beyond the pasturage of the walls enumerated hereafter .. they are the wells or Halin, and from these to those of Hudin, and from Hudin to Tifafleh, and from Tifafleh to Danot
  53. ^ Katagiri, Noriyuki (2015). Adapting to Win: How Insurgents Fight and Defeat Foreign States in War. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 125. Two years later they moved to Dameero and later to Taleex, the heart of the Nugaal Valley, and built garrisons.
  54. ^ a b War Office, British (1907). "Volume Two". Official history of the operations in Somaliland, 1901-04 (Volume 2 ed.). Harrison and Sons. pp. 402–412. (anti-dervish expedition) "It was obvious from the first that the main operations would be conducted in the Nogal district. This tract of country was very badly and inaccurately shown on existing maps" ... "All demands for maps were met with great promptitude, and, in the case of the three Nogal maps, which were compiled in the field and sent home for reproduction,... Nogal No. 1 was compiled in the field and sent home for rapid production ... I had Nogal No. 2 compiled from all the above sources, with the addition of Wellby's route, which had been accidentally omitted from No. 1. ... I had no hesitation in making his work the basis of the new map, Nogal No. 3, and the work previously compiled in No. 2 was fitted on to it." ... "They went to Gumburu (see Nogal sketch)" ...
  55. ^ War Office, British (1907). Official history of the operations in Somaliland, 1901-04. p. 604. the Secretary of State for War stated in the House of Commons that it had been decided to discontinue the military operations ... orders were sent to the Officer Commmanding 1st Brigade to withdraw from the Nogal by the 8th May
  56. ^ War Office, British (1907). Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04. p. 315. situated in every way for a base of operations in the Nogal which it was evident must form the theatre of war
  57. ^ Jardine, Douglas (1923). Mad Mullah of Somaliland. p. 128. tract of country known as Nogal, which forms the principal summer grazing ground of the Dolbahanta, and the Mullah's base of operations against the western and north-eastern tribes of the Protectorate. It is well known that the Dolbahanta tribe are adherents of the Mullah
  58. ^ Jardine, Douglas (1923). Mad Mullah of Somaliland. p. 124. Press at home urged General Egerton to make a sudden dash at once for the Nogal with mounted troops. This, they maintained, was all that was necessary now to terminate the Somali war ... His Majesty's Government, however, expressed themselves as ... being anxious to strike an immediate and damaging blow at the Mullah in the Nogal
  59. ^ Spencer, John (1978). Horn of Africa, Volume 1, Issue 2. University of Michigan. p. 65. impregnable fortifications the Sayyid had constructed for his people in the Nugaal Valley
  60. ^ Nelson, Harold (1982). Somalia, a Country Study. Library of Congress. p. 18. an Italian subsidy and autonomous protected status in the Nugaal ( Nogal ) Valley ... some clans there declared themselves dervishes
  61. ^ Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-Clio. following the lllig Treaty of 1904, for instance, the entire Nugaal Valley, a large shallow ... was conceded ... The hope was that this concession would make the Dervishes turn their interest away from the rest of the Italian Somaliland
  62. ^ Andrzejewski, B.W. (1985). Literatures in African Languages: Theoretical Issues and Sample Surveys. Cambridge University Press. p. 353. Dervish forces ... besieged in their two forts ... repulsed against enourmous odds the Italian forces ... A mad cleric has come upon us from the heartland of Nugaal
  63. ^ Declich, Francesca (2018). Translocal Connections across the Indian Ocean: Swahili Speaking Networks on the Move. Brill Publishers. p. 75. the Salihiyya Dervish movement ... spread in northern Somalia in the late 1890s ... and first called for jihad in the Nugaal Valley, among Somali pastoral clans
  64. ^ Spearce, Walter (August 1903). Somali Campaign. The third leader is Deeria Goori, of the Dolbahanta tribe, who was badly wounded at the Battle of Gunrburru ... These men are the heads of their respective tribes, and are all wealthy and powerful.
  65. ^ Auswärtige Politik, Institut für (1902). Das Staatsarchiv. p. 39. The Mollah was reported still to be in the recesses of that country and to be contemplating seizing the twelve principal Sheikhs of the district
  66. ^ Robert L. Hess (1968). Norman Robert Bennett (ed.). Leadership in Eastern Africa: Six Political Biographies. Boston University Press. p. 103.
  67. ^ R. W. Beachey (1990). The warrior mullah: the Horn aflame, 1892-1920. Bellew. pp. 37–44. ISBN 978-0-947792-43-5.
  68. ^ Official History of the Operations in Somaliland, 1901-04, page 319, year 1907 "The instructions to Kenna were “ to endeavour by every means to locate the position of the Haroun , and having done so , to try and surprise it by long - distance marching with his mounted troops"
  69. ^ Moberly Bell, Charles Frederic (1910). The Times from London. p. 5. I am strengthening the Darud by the issue of over 200 rifles, and an attack on the Haroun under Omar Doreh, who is to take place of Farah Mahmud, is being organized
  70. ^ Taariikhdii daraawiishta iyo Sayid Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan, 1895-1921, p 96, 1976
  71. ^ Ferro e Fuoco in Somalia, da Francesco Saverio Caroselli, Rome, 1931; p. 272. "i Dulbohanta nella maggior parte si sono arresi agli inglesi e han loro consegnato ventisette garese (case) ricolme di fucili, munizioni e danaro." (English: "the Dhulbahante surrendered for the most part to the British and handed twenty-seven garesas (houses) full of guns, ammunition and money over to them."viewable link
  72. ^ a b Douglas Jardine, 1923 "the Sheikh despatched a denunciatory letter to the Mullah, reproaching him in no measured terms and pointing out that conduct was not only at variance with the tenets of the sect"
  73. ^ a b of Commons, House (1901). Sessional Papers. p. 1. This sect was established in Berbera about twelve years ago. It preaches more regularity in the hour of prayer , stricter attention to the forms of religion , and the interdiction of Kat — a leaf the Arabs and coast Somalis are much addicted to chewing on account of its strengthening ... This teaching has not found much favour with the people of the town.
  74. ^ The National Archives UK - CO 1069-8-64
  75. ^ a b Omar Issa, Jama (2005). Taariikhdii daraawiishta iyo Sayid Maxamad Cabdille Xasan 1895-1920. p. 45. I do not consider that the presence of this Mission in Berbera has had anything to do with the movement that originated in the Dolbahanta , though it is doubtless a useful level with which to try and raise disaffection amongst ... I am a Hashimi by descent, Shaffei by doctrine, a Sunni and belonging to the Ahmedieh tarika. This is for my part
  76. ^ Benjamin Hopkins (2014). David Motadel (ed.). Islam and the European Empires. Oxford University Press. pp. 150–151. ISBN 978-0-19-966831-1., Quote: "Men of religious learning and authority were well-positioned in these societies [Somaliland, Sudan, Northwest Frontier of British India] to straddle the disparate and often conflicting interests of local peoples. The protection of Islam became their rallying cry, providing a coherent narrative of and justification for resistance against the forces of colonialism, as well as a unifying force which superseded particularist tribal identities."
  77. ^ Hasan, Mohamed-Rashid S., and Salada M. Robleh (2004), "Islamic revival and education in Somalia", Educational Strategies Among Muslims in the Context of Globalization: Some National Case Studies, Volume 3, BRILL Academic, page 147
  78. ^ Omar, Mohamed Osman (2006). Somalia: Past and Present. p. 95. We assist your Biladiyahs, and turn away those who backbite you ... We inform you that there is peace in all the country; there is no fear. Secondly, I ask you, by God, by your Prophet, by your religion, and by your Church, do not create a disturbance in the country
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  81. ^ of Rodd, Lord Rennell (1948). British Military Administration in Africa 1941-1947. HMSO. p. 481.
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  83. ^ Kimberly A. Huisman (2011). Kimberly A. Huisman; Mazie Hough; et al. (eds.). Somalis in Maine: Crossing Cultural Currents. North Atlantic Books. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-1-55643-926-1.
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  87. ^ SOMALIA: A Nation's Literary Death Tops Its Political Demise by Said S Samatar
  88. ^ https://www.ceegaag.com/calanka-khaatumo-ha-dhicin-oo-ha-dheeliyin/
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