Ectocarpus

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Ectocarpus
Ectocarpus siliculosus.jpg
E. siliculosus, from the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary (1890-1907)
Scientific classification e
Clade: SAR
Phylum: Ochrophyta
Class: Phaeophyceae
Order: Ectocarpales
Family: Ectocarpaceae
Genus: Ectocarpus
Lyngbye 1819

Ectocarpus is a genus of filamentous brown alga that is a model organism for the genomics of multicellularity.[1] Among possible model organisms in the brown algae, Ectocarpus was selected for the relatively small size of its mature thallus and the speed with which it completes its life cycle.[2][3] The type species for the genus is Ectocarpus siliculosus (Dillwyn) Lyngbye.[4] The life history is an isomorphic to slightly kiheteromorphic alternation of generations, but asexual strains also exist.

Taxonomy and Nomenclature[]

In 1809, Dillwyn described Ectocarpus as another algae known as Conferva siliculosa basing from collected specimens by W.J. Hooker from Norfolk and East Sussex. In 1819, Lyngbye subsequently described Ectocarpus using a specimen from Denmark, citing C. siliculosa Dilwyn as its basionym.[5] These brown algae are known members of heterokonts, which includes diatoms and oomycetes. Ectocarpales is known to be primitive from a phylogenetic standpoint, emerging from a group of brown algae that has recently evolved together with the order Laminariales, a group consisting of kelp species.[6] Phylogenetic analyses are underway to resolve a certain complexity within the genus in order to confirm different species.[7]

Morphology[]

Studies on morphology have been limited for Ectocarpus as only two species in the genera (E. siliculosa and E. fasciculatus) are well-described based on morphology and genetic sequence.

In general, Ectocarpus is described to be a filamentous algae that can grow up to 30 cm. Cultured specimens in the laboratory tend to be fertile as early as 1–3 cm in length. In unialgal cultures, Ectocarpus are described to have a branched appearance, in contrast, axenic cultures show Ectocarpus having a small ball-shaped appearance.[8] E. siliculosus functions as a model organism in the genus, used as a basis for molecular markers that can aid in understanding genetic polymorphism among species and between life cycles across different locations in the world.[9]

Distribution[]

Ectocarpus can be found across the globe, in temperate shorelines growing as epiphytes on other flora (e.g. seagrass, other alga) or on rocky substrates. While commonly attached to a substrate, thalli of Ectocarpus may also survive while floating. Ectocarpus are also commonly found as epiphytes on marine macroflora rather than epilithic, although studies have been limited in evaluating their hosts.[10] On the other hand, E. fasciculatus is known as an endophyte of Laminaria digitata, but no study has documented how it bypasses the kelp's defense.[11][12] E. crouniorium are found in the intertidal zone while E. siliculosus and E. fasciculatus can be found in mid-intertidal and subtidal zones, respectively.[13]

Ecology[]

Ectocarpus thalli tend to shelter several marine invertebrates (e.g. crustaceans and nematodes) and some protists, which are either feeding on its thallus or reproductive cells, however, these have not been documented previously.[14] Few have studied the genus' ecology, however, previous studies have shown that temperature affects the life cycle of a few strains which may suggest genetic differences among Ectocarpus species.[15]

Life History[]

Ectocarpus has a haplo-diploid life cycle having both sporophyte and gametophyte stages, which can complete its whole life cycle within 3 months in the laboratory. Diploid sporophytes give rise to haploid meiospores which will then produce a haploid gametophyte generation. These gametophytes are dioecious, which are either male or female wherein their fusion would produce diploid zygotes, restarting the sporophyte stage. Parthenogenesis may also occur when one gamete does not find the opposite, producing a sporophyte.[16]

Cultivation and Exploitation[]

A protocol has been established in culturing Ectocarpus in the laboratory using sporophyte filament as a starter, collected and maintained as a strain. Ectocarpus are able to grow in artificial seawater although a standard medium that can be used is a Provasoli-enriched seawater (PES). Standard laboratory conditions also include 13 degrees Celsius as temperature under 12h light:dark cycle with irradiance at 20 µmol photons m−2 s−1 using fluorescent lights.[17]

Chemical Composition[]

Iodide originating from seawater can be accumulated in high concentrations by several brown algae. Among Ectocarpus, enyzmes have been identified to be involved iodine emission including some dehalogenases and haloalkane dehalogenases.[18] These enzymes may also aid in defending Ectocarpus as an epiphyte, against halogenated defenses of its host.[19]

Utilization and Management[]

Ectocarpus may be vulnerable to an array of pathogens and parasites. In addition, environmental stress caused by temperature, light, and salinity changes. The transcriptome of Ectocarpus is primarily affected, where gene expression is altered in number despite low to mild stress.[20] Further studies are needed to confirm stress-induced changes in its genes, since there may be other unknown mechanisms it may affect.[21]

List of species[]

Some currently accepted species of Ectocarpus include:

  • Kützing
  • Setchell & N.L.Gardner
  • Ercegovic
  • Setchell & N.L.Gardner
  • Kützing
  • Bory de Saint-Vincentex Kützing
  • Montagne
  • Kützing
  • (Kjellman) Kjellman
  • Lindauer
  • (Smith) S.F.Gray
  • Noda
  • Kützing
  • Setchell & N.L.Gardner
  • Lindauer
  • Børgesen
  • Noda
  • J.Agardh
  • Setchell & N.L.Gardner
  • Noda
  • Noda
  • Hariot
  • Thuret
  • Thuret
  • Børgesen
  • Zanardini
  • Noda
  • Lindauer
  • &
  • Noda
  • Carmichael
  • N.L.Gardner
  • Kützing
  • Skottsberg
  • Zanardini
  • Skottsberg
  • Harvey
  • P.L.Crouan & H.M.Crouan
  • Setchell & N.L.Gardner
  • Kützing
  • Setchell & N.L.Gardner
  • Schousboe ex Thuret
  • Oltmanns
  • J.Agardh ex William M. Wilson
  • Zeller
  • Setchell & N.L.Gardner
  • Harvey & J.W.Bailey
  • E.Y.Dawson
  • P.L.Crouan & H.M.Crouan
  • Noda
  • Kützing
  • Kützing
  • E.Y.Dawson
  • Meneghini
  • Noda
  • Noda
  • Noda
  • Harvey
  • P.L.Crouan & H.M.Crouan
  • Noda
  • Skottsberg &
  • Montagne
  • Noda
  • Noda &
  • Zanardini
  • Zanardini
  • Zanardini
  • Noda
  • Noda
  • P.L.Crouan & H.M.Crouan
  • Noda
  • Kützing
  • (C.Agardh) Kjellman
  • Noda
  • Noda
  • Noda
  • Zanardini
  • Zanardini
  • Vickers
  • Zanardini
  • Noda &
  • Zanardini
  • Kützing
  • (Roth) C.Agardh
  • Noda
  • Noda
  • Noda
  • Zanardini
  • Noda
  • Noda
  • Ohta
  • Ectocarpus siliculosus (Dillwyn) Lyngbye
  • C.Agardh
  • Setchell & N.L.Gardner
  • E.Y.Dawson
  • Zanardini
  • Børgesen
  • Setchell & N.L.Gardner
  • Ohta
  • Noda
  • H.Gran
  • Ohta
  • Vickers
  • Kützing
  • &
  • W.R.Taylor
  • Noda & Ohta

References[]

  1. ^ Cock, J.M.; et al. (2010). "The Ectocarpus genome and the independent evolution of multicellularity in brown algae". Nature. 465 (7298): 617–621. Bibcode:2010Natur.465..617C. doi:10.1038/nature09016. PMID 20520714.
  2. ^ Peters, A.F.; Marie, D.; Scornet, D.; Kloareg, B.; Cock, J.M. (2004). "Proposal of Ectocarpus siliculosus (Ectocarpales, Phaeophyceae) as a model organism for brown algal genetics and genomics". Journal of Phycology. 40 (6): 1079–1088. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2004.04058.x. S2CID 86664046.
  3. ^ Dieter G. Müller, Markus Kapp, Rolf Knippers, Viruses in Marine Brown Algae, In: Karl Maramorosch, Frederick A. Murphy and Aaron J. Shatkin, Editor(s), Advances in Virus Research, Academic Press, 1998, Volume 50, Pages 49-67, ISSN 0065-3527, ISBN 9780120398508, doi:10.1016/S0065-3527(08)60805-2.
  4. ^ AlgaeBase
  5. ^ Charrier, Bénédicte; Coelho, Susana M.; Bail, Aude Le; Tonon, Thierry; Michel, Gurvan; Potin, Philippe; Kloareg, Bernard; Boyen, Catherine; Peters, Akira F.; Cock, J. Mark (2008). "Development and physiology of the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus: two centuries of research". New Phytologist. 177 (2): 319–332. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02304.x. ISSN 1469-8137. PMID 18181960.
  6. ^ Coelho, Susana (2012). "Ectocarpus: A Model Organism for the Brown Algae". Cold Spring Harbor Protocols. 2012 (2): 193–198. doi:10.1101/pdb.emo065821. PMID 22301644. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
  7. ^ Charrier, Bénédicte; Coelho, Susana M.; Bail, Aude Le; Tonon, Thierry; Michel, Gurvan; Potin, Philippe; Kloareg, Bernard; Boyen, Catherine; Peters, Akira F.; Cock, J. Mark (2008). "Development and physiology of the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus: two centuries of research". New Phytologist. 177 (2): 319–332. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02304.x. ISSN 1469-8137. PMID 18181960.
  8. ^ Tapia, Javier E.; González, Bernardo; Goulitquer, Sophie; Potin, Philippe; Correa, Juan A. (2016). "Microbiota Influences Morphology and Reproduction of the Brown Alga Ectocarpus sp". Frontiers in Microbiology. 7: 197. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.00197. ISSN 1664-302X. PMC 4765120. PMID 26941722.
  9. ^ Charrier, Bénédicte; Coelho, Susana M.; Bail, Aude Le; Tonon, Thierry; Michel, Gurvan; Potin, Philippe; Kloareg, Bernard; Boyen, Catherine; Peters, Akira F.; Cock, J. Mark (2008). "Development and physiology of the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus: two centuries of research". New Phytologist. 177 (2): 319–332. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02304.x. ISSN 1469-8137. PMID 18181960.
  10. ^ Charrier, Bénédicte; Coelho, Susana M.; Bail, Aude Le; Tonon, Thierry; Michel, Gurvan; Potin, Philippe; Kloareg, Bernard; Boyen, Catherine; Peters, Akira F.; Cock, J. Mark (2008). "Development and physiology of the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus: two centuries of research". New Phytologist. 177 (2): 319–332. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02304.x. ISSN 1469-8137. PMID 18181960.
  11. ^ Russell (1983). "Parallel growth patterns in algal epiphytes and Laminaria blades" (PDF). Marine Ecology Progress Series. 13: 303. Bibcode:1983MEPS...13..303R. doi:10.3354/meps013303.
  12. ^ Russell (1983). "Formation of an ectocarpoid epiflora on blades of Laminaria digitata" (PDF). Marine Ecology Progress Series. 11: 181. Bibcode:1983MEPS...11..181R. doi:10.3354/meps011181.
  13. ^ Peters, Akira F.; Wijk, Serinde J. Van; Cho, Ga Youn; Scornet, Delphine; Hanyuda, Takeaki; Kawai, Hiroshi; Schroeder, Declan C.; Cock, J. Mark; Boo, Sung Min (2010). "Reinstatement of Ectocarpus crouaniorum Thuret in Le Jolis as a third common species of Ectocarpus (Ectocarpales, Phaeophyceae) in Western Europe, and its phenology at Roscoff, Brittany". Phycological Research. 58 (3): 157–170. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1835.2010.00574.x. ISSN 1440-1835. S2CID 82731900.
  14. ^ Charrier, Bénédicte; Coelho, Susana M.; Bail, Aude Le; Tonon, Thierry; Michel, Gurvan; Potin, Philippe; Kloareg, Bernard; Boyen, Catherine; Peters, Akira F.; Cock, J. Mark (2008). "Development and physiology of the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus: two centuries of research". New Phytologist. 177 (2): 319–332. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02304.x. ISSN 1469-8137. PMID 18181960.
  15. ^ Bolton, J. J. (1983-03-01). "Ecoclinal variation in Ectocarpus siliculosus (Phaeophyceae) with respect to temperature growth optima and survival limits". Marine Biology. 73 (2): 131–138. doi:10.1007/BF00406880. ISSN 1432-1793. S2CID 85006513.
  16. ^ Charrier, Bénédicte; Coelho, Susana M.; Le Bail, Aude; Tonon, Thierry; Michel, Gurvan; Potin, Philippe; Kloareg, Bernard; Boyen, Catherine; Peters, Akira F.; Cock, J. Mark (January 2008). "Development and physiology of the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus : two centuries of research". New Phytologist. 177 (2): 319–332. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02304.x. ISSN 0028-646X. PMID 18181960.
  17. ^ Coelho, Susana M.; Scornet, Delphine; Rousvoal, Sylvie; Peters, Nick T.; Dartevelle, Laurence; Peters, Akira F.; Cock, J. Mark (2012-02-01). "How to Cultivate Ectocarpus". Cold Spring Harbor Protocols. 2012 (2): 258–261. doi:10.1101/pdb.prot067934. ISSN 1940-3402. PMID 22301662.
  18. ^ Cock, J. Mark; Sterck, Lieven; Rouzé, Pierre; Scornet, Delphine; Allen, Andrew E.; Amoutzias, Grigoris; Anthouard, Veronique; Artiguenave, François; Aury, Jean-Marc; Badger, Jonathan H.; Beszteri, Bank (June 2010). "The Ectocarpus genome and the independent evolution of multicellularity in brown algae". Nature. 465 (7298): 617–621. Bibcode:2010Natur.465..617C. doi:10.1038/nature09016. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 20520714. S2CID 4329490.
  19. ^ Coelho, Susana M.; Scornet, Delphine; Rousvoal, Sylvie; Peters, Nick T.; Dartevelle, Laurence; Peters, Akira F.; Cock, J. Mark (2012-02-01). "Ectocarpus: A Model Organism for the Brown Algae". Cold Spring Harbor Protocols. 2012 (2): 193–198. doi:10.1101/pdb.emo065821. ISSN 1940-3402. PMID 22301644.
  20. ^ Dittami, Simon M.; Gravot, Antoine; Renault, David; Goulitquer, Sophie; Eggert, Anja; Bouchereau, Alain; Boyen, Catherine; Tonon, Thierry (2011). "Integrative analysis of metabolite and transcript abundance during the short-term response to saline and oxidative stress in the brown alga Ectocarpus siliculosus". Plant, Cell & Environment. 34 (4): 629–642. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3040.2010.02268.x. ISSN 1365-3040.
  21. ^ Coelho, Susana M.; Scornet, Delphine; Rousvoal, Sylvie; Peters, Nick T.; Dartevelle, Laurence; Peters, Akira F.; Cock, J. Mark (2012-02-01). "Ectocarpus: A Model Organism for the Brown Algae". Cold Spring Harbor Protocols. 2012 (2): 193–198. doi:10.1101/pdb.emo065821. ISSN 1940-3402. PMID 22301644.

Further reading[]

Ahmed, Sophia; Cock, J. Mark; Pessia, Eugenie (8 September 2014). "A Haploid System of Sex Determination in the Brown Alga Ectocarpus sp". Current Biology. 24 (17): 1945–1957. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.07.042. PMID 25176635.

Prigent, Sylvian (10 October 2014). "The genome-scale metabolic network of Ectocarpus siliculosus (EctoGEM): a resource to study brown algal physiology and beyond". Plant Journal. 80 (2): 367–381. doi:10.1111/tpj.12627. PMID 25065645.

External links[]

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