Greek revolt of 1567–1572

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The Greek revolt of 1566–1572 was a series of conflicts between Greek rebels and the Ottoman Empire during the early period of Ottoman rule in the region. Social tensions intensified at the end of the 16th century by the debilitation of the Ottoman administration, the chronic economic crisis, and arbitrary conduct of the Ottoman state authorities. The leaders of the uprising were initially successful and controlled several strategic locations and fortresses, especially in Epirus, Central Greece, and the Peloponnese. However the movement lacked the necessary organization. They were assisted by western powers; mainly by the Republic of Venice. Meanwhile the victory of the Holy League against the Ottoman fleet in the Battle of Lepanto, in November 1571, triggered further revolutionary activity. However, Venice withdrew its support to the Greek rebels and signed a unilateral peace with the Ottomans. As such the rebellion was doomed to end and the Ottoman forces committed a number of massacres in the aftermath of the revolt during the suppression of the uprising. Throughout the pacification process, various primarily isolated areas were still out of Ottoman control and new rebellions erupted, like that of Dionysios Skylosophos in 1611.

Background[]

Social tensions intensified by the debilitation of the Ottoman administration, as well as chronic economic crisis and arbitrary conduct of the Ottoman authorities. Under this context during the 16th century various Orthodox communities lost their social and economic privileges that had been formerly recognized by Ottoman decrees.[1] Additionally, extensive imposition of extraordinary taxation by the Ottoman authorities in the Greek mainland and forced conscription to meet the increased demand of the Ottoman navy further deteriorated the situation.[1] Instances of widespread destruction of churches and systematic plundering of religious property were also recorded in contemporary sources, both Greek and foreign.[1]

As a result of this kind of intensified oppression and arbitrary rule the local population hoped for a military intervention by a Christian power.[1] Representatives of the Greek communities made several appeals for assistance against Ottoman rule.[2]

Activity in 1566 - March 1571[]

In Epirus the uprising begun at the end of 1566 in the coastal region of Himara. An Ottoman attempt to suppress the rebellion in September of that year failed.[3] In the summer of 1567 the rebellion spread across several villages, while a siege attempt against the castle of Nivica on the Ionian Sea coast in January 1568 was initially unsuccessful.[3] Meanwhile, the inhabitants of the Mani Peninsula on the southern edge of the Peloponnese revolted in the autumn of 1567.[4] The Maniot rebels received reinforcement by volunteers from Ioannina, who were landed there by a Spanish fleet.[4]

The Ottomans responded by dispatching a naval force to the coast of Epirus but the rebels managed to retreat inland and took advantage of the mountainous terrain. Additionally, in the summer of 1569, an Ottoman fortress was erected in a strategic location in Mani to monitor rebellious activity.[4] After a short decline, the rebellion reached a new momentum and the newly erected fortress was captured in the summer of 1570 with the support of a Venetian force.[4] Following the outbreak of the Ottoman–Venetian War in 1570, Venetian units also assisted the revolutionaries in Himara in the capture of the castle of Sopot on the Ionian Sea coast after a two-month siege in June 1570. The uprising spread to various parts of Epirus under Emmanuel Mormoris, with the guidance of local Greek nobles and various Stratioti military leaders such as Petros Lantzas.[5] The castle of Nivica was also taken in March 1571.[3]

Battle of Lepanto and aftermath[]

The Battle of Lepanto of 1571, by Andries van Eertvelt
See also: Battle of Lepanto

The Battle of Lepanto took place off the coast of Patras in the Ionian Sea on 10-14 November 1571. A significant number of Greeks participated in the conflict on the side of the Holy League, while three Venetian galleys were commanded by Greek captains. Historian George Finlay (1877) stated with a certain decree of exaggeration that over 25,000 Greeks fought for the Holy League, while additionally 5,000 were in the Ottoman side. He concluded that their numbers "far exceeded that of the combatants of any of the nations engaged".[2] The Battle of Lepanto resulted in the defeat of the Ottoman fleet by the Holy League. As a result Greek-Venetian activities reached a new momentum and the leaders of the Orthodox Greek communities continued to invest their resources and energy for the purpose of uprooting Ottoman rule.[6]

News of the Christian victory spread immediately in the nearby region of Patras where the inhabitants rejoiced in the destruction of the Ottoman fleet. The local metropolitan bishop, Germanos, and the local nobility joined the movement. Soon after armed units were formed and expelled the Ottoman garrison. Meanwhile, some Ottoman crews that managed to flee from the victorious Christian fleet landed on the nearby coast of Peloponnese and were annihilated by the insurgents.[7] The rebellion was soon spread to nearby regions in the Peloponnese and central Greece, namely Aigio, Galaxidi, and Salona.[8] In Epirus, the combined Greek-Venetian force was again successful at the siege of Margariti .[9][3] As a result a region stretching from Argyrokastron down to Parga came under rebel control.[5] Among the revolutionary leaders, the Stratioti Georgios Renesis became active in Lefkada and Arta.[10] Moreover, representatives of Ioannina and the surrounding region initiated secret communications with the Venetians to overthrow their local Ottoman authorities.[6]

1571-1572[]

Large-scale unrest occurred in additional parts of the Ottoman Empire; in the islands of Aegina and Lefkada the Christian inhabitants rose in revolt, while in Naxos they declined to pay the jizya tax owed by the Christian subjects of the Empire.[3]

However, in 1572 it became apparent that the Venetians were about to sign a peace treaty with the Ottomans.[4] As a result, the Greeks that had cooperated with the Venetians turned to the Kingdom of Naples, then part of the Spanish Empire, for support.[11] The rebels in Mani approached the Spanish,[4] while others, such as Manthos Papagiannis and Panos Kestolikos, visited Don Juan, commander-in-chief of the Holly Alliance.[12] Additionally, the metropolitan bishop of Monemvasia, Makarios Melissenos, and his brother, Theodore, initiated negotiations with both the Spanish and the Venetians.[4]

During April 1572 the rebellion was still active in parts of Mani and Monemvasia.[4] The Ottomans sent a large army as well as naval forces which attacked the rebellious provinces and compelled Emmanuel Mormoris to retreat to the castle of Sopot, where he was later arrested.[13] In October 1572 an attempt by Spain to land reinforcements in the coastal towns of Pylos and Modon failed.[4]

Suppression[]

As a result of the Venetian withdrawal from the region the rebellion was doomed to end. Venice finally decided to sign a unilateral peace with the Ottomans in 1573.[11] On the other hand, Spain continued to encourage insurrections against the Ottoman Empire and acceded to the petitions of various rebels and potential rebels.[14] However, due to bad organization the uprising was finally suppressed and most of the leaders were executed by the Ottomans. Ottoman suppression was harsh in Patras and the city became almost deserted in the following years.[15] Among those executed were several nobles, among them metropolitan bishop Germanos, and the local nobility were mutilated.[16] In Ioannina the Ottoman governor proposed the expulsion of the entire Christian community from the castle and their replacement with Muslim settlers.[17] As a result during the last quarter of the 16th century Greek refugees fled to nearby Venetian-controlled areas, in particular the Ionian islands.[18]

References[]

  1. ^ a b c d Hasiotis, 2011, p. 439
  2. ^ a b Brewer, 2012, p. 92
  3. ^ a b c d e Kotzagoergis, 2008, p. 24
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i Kotzagoergis, 2008, p. 23
  5. ^ a b Vranousis, L.; Sfyroeras, V. (1997). "From the Turkish Conquest to the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century: Revolutionary Movements and Uprisings". Epirus, 4000 Years of Greek History and Civilization: 244–251. ISBN 9789602133712.
  6. ^ a b Yildirim 2007, pp. 537–538.
  7. ^ Tsiknakis, 2005, p. 225
  8. ^ Tsiknakis, 2005, p. 226
  9. ^ Hasiotis, 1970, p. 193: "οι Έλληνες εκλήθηκαν και πάλι να συνεργαστούν με τους Βενετούς στην πραγματοποιήση της δεύτερης πολιορκίας του Μαργαριτίου που έγινε αμέσως μετά τη ναυμαχία της Ναυπάκτου (στις 10-14 Νοεμβρίου 1571)... "«στρατιάς» στα περίχωρα του Μαργαριτιοϋ καί, τέλος, εξασφάλισε τη συνεργασία των κατοίκων των γειτονικών χωριών "
  10. ^ Vakalopoulos, Konstantinos A. (2003). Ιστορία της Ηπείρου. Από τις απαρχές της οθωμανοκρατίας ως τις μέρες μας [History of Epirus: From the Start of Ottoman Rule to the Present Day] (in Greek). Herodotos. p. 81. Οι Βενετοί της Κέρκυρας ανάθεσαν ακόμη στον Γεώργιο Ρενέση, ο οποίος συμμετείχε παλαιότερα στην πολιορκία του Σοποτού και του Μαργαριτιού καθώς και στις στρατιωτικές επιχειρήσεις της Άρτας, της Λευκάδας
  11. ^ a b Hasiotis, 1975, p. 285
  12. ^ Giakoumis, 2002, p. 22
  13. ^ Giakoumis, 2002, p. 19
  14. ^ Lubin, 2012, p. 165
  15. ^ Tsiknakis, 2005, p. 234
  16. ^ Tsiknakis, 2005, p. 228
  17. ^ Kotzagoergis, 2008, p. 24
  18. ^ Pappas, Nicholas Charles (1982). Greeks in Russian Military Service in the Late Eighteen and Early Nineteenth Centuries. Stanford University. p. 224. Fugitives from abortive uprisings in mainland Greece and the Peloponnesus following the battle of Lepanto in 1571 came to the Ionian Islands in the last quarter of the sixteenth century .

Sources[]

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