Kalinago

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Kalinago

Kalhíphona
Carib family (by John Gabriel Stedman 1818)
Total population
3,700 (Dominica)[1]
Regions with significant populations
Dominica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, United States, formerly throughout the Lesser Antilles and South America
Languages
English, Dominican Creole French, formerly Island Carib
Related ethnic groups
Garifuna, Black Carib, Taíno

Drawing of a Carib woman (1888)

The Kalinago, also known as the Island Caribs^[2] or simply Caribs, are an indigenous people of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. They may have been related to the Mainland Caribs (Kalina) of South America, but they spoke an unrelated language known as Island Carib.^[3] They also spoke a pidgin language associated with the Mainland Caribs.^[3]

At the time of Spanish contact, the Kalinago were one of the dominant groups in the Caribbean, which owes its name to them. They lived throughout northeastern South America, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, the Windward Islands, Dominica, and possibly the southern Leeward Islands. Historically, it was thought their ancestors were mainland peoples who had conquered the islands from their previous inhabitants, the Igneri. However, linguistic and archaeological evidence contradicts the notion of a mass emigration and conquest; the Kalinago language appears not to have been Cariban, but like that of their neighbors, the Taíno. Irving Rouse and others suggest that a smaller group of mainland peoples migrated to the islands without displacing their inhabitants, eventually adopting the local language but retaining their traditions of a South American origin.^[4]

In the early colonial period, the Kalinago had a reputation as warriors who raided neighboring islands. According to the Spanish conquistadors, the Kalinago were cannibals who regularly ate roasted human flesh.^[5] There is evidence as to the taking of human trophies and the ritual cannibalism of war captives among both Carib and other Amerindian groups such as the Arawak and Tupinamba. Today, the Kalinago and their descendants continue to live in the Antilles, notably on the island of Dominica. The Garifuna, who share common ancestry with the Kalinago, also live principally in Central America.

Name[]

The exonym Caribe was first recorded by Christopher Columbus.^[6]:vi One hypothesis for the origin of Carib is that it means "brave warrior".^[6]:vi Its variants, including the English word Carib, were then adopted by other European languages.^[6]:vi Early Spanish explorers and administrators used the terms Arawak and Caribs to distinguish the peoples of the Caribbean, with Carib reserved for indigenous groups that they considered hostile and Arawak for groups that they considered friendly.^[7]:121

The Kalinago language endonyms are Karifuna (singular) and Kalinago (plural).^[8][9]

History[]

The Caribs are believed to have migrated from the Orinoco River area in South America to settle in the Caribbean islands about 1200 AD, according to carbon dating.^[10]

Pre-Columban history[]

Over the two centuries leading up to Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Caribbean archipelago in 1492, the Caribs mostly displaced the Maipurean-speaking Taínos by warfare, extermination, and assimilation. The Taíno had settled the island chains earlier in history, migrating from the mainland.^[11]

Greenstone ceremonial axe. From shell midden, Mt Irvine Bay, Tobago, 1957.

Caribs traded with the Eastern Taíno of the Caribbean Islands.

In its early days, Daguao village was slated to be the capital of Puerto Rico but the area was destroyed by Caribs from neighbor-island Vieques and by Taínos, from the eastern area of Puerto Rico.^[12]

The Caribs produced the silver products which Ponce de Leon found in Taíno communities. None of the insular Amerindians mined for gold but obtained it by trade from the mainland. The Caribs were skilled boat builders and sailors. They appear to have owed their dominance in the Caribbean basin to their mastery of warfare.

Under the Spanish[]

According to Floyd, "The question arose in Columbus's time as to whether Indians could be enslaved but Queen Isabel had ruled against it. At about the same time, however, Ojeda, Bastidas, and other explorers voyaging along the Spanish Main had been attacked by Indians with poisoned arrows - all such Indians were considered Caribs - which took a considerable toll of Spanish lives.

These attacks and the evidence that at least some of the perpetrators were cannibals, provided the rationale for the decree authorizing enslavement of Caribs." On 3 June, 1511, King Ferdinand declared war on the Caribs.^[13] Nevertheless, the Island Caribs mostly succeeded in resisting Spanish attempts to colonize their territories.^{[citation needed]}

During the late 17th century, the Island Caribs experienced another widespread population decrease due to infectious diseases introduced by European colonists. Diseases such as smallpox, which the Island Caribs had no natural immunity to, decimated their population.^{[citation needed]}

Resistance to the English and the French[]

In the 17th century, the Kalinago regularly attacked the plantations of the English and the French in the Leeward Islands. In the 1630s, planters from the Leewards conducted campaigns against the Kalinago, but with limited success. The Kalinago took advantage of divisions between the Europeans, to provide support to the French and the Dutch during wars in the 1650s, consolidating their independence as a result.^[14]

In 1660, France and England signed the Treaty of Saint Charles with Island Caribs, which stipulated that Caribs would evacuate all the Lesser Antilles except for Dominica and Saint Vincent, that were recognised as reserves. However, the English would later ignore the treaty, and pursue a campaign against the Kalinago in succeeding decades.^[15] Between the 1660s and 1700, the English waged an intermittent campaign against the Kalinago.^[16]

Chief Kairouane and his men from Grenada jumped off of the “Leapers Hill" rather than face slavery under the French invaders, serving as an iconic representation of the Carib spirit of resistance.^[17][18][19]

By 1763, the British eventually annexed St Lucia, Tobago, Dominica and St Vincent.^[20]

Resistance to the British[]

The 'Black Caribs' (later known as carifuna) of St. Vincent (St. Vincent has some "Yellow Caribs" as well) were descended from a group of enslaved Africans who were marooned from shipwrecked slave ships, as well as those who escaped from plantations. They encountered and intermarried with the Carib, forming a new Afro-Indigenous culture. In 1795, the British deported the Black Caribs from St. Vincent after the Second Carib War to Roatan Island, off Honduras. Their descendants continue to live there today and are known as the Garifuna ethnic group. The Black Carib communities that remained in St. Vincent and Dominica retained a degree of autonomy well into the 19th. century.^{[citation needed]}

Modern-day Kalinago in the Windward Islands[]

To this day, a small population of around 3,000 Caribs survives in the Carib Territory in northeast Dominica.

People[]

Distribution of Cariban languages in South America^[21]

Carib Warrior (mixed media sculpture by artist George S. Stuart)

The Kalinago of Dominica maintained their independence for many years by taking advantage of the island's rugged terrain. The island's east coast includes a 3,700-acre (15 km²) territory formerly known as the Carib Territory that was granted to the people by the British government in 1903. There are only 3,000 Caribs remaining in Dominica. They elect their own chief. In July 2003, the Kalinago observed 100 Years of Territory, and in July 2014, Charles Williams was elected Kalinago Chief,^[22] succeeding Chief Garnette Joseph.

Several hundred Carib descendants live in the U. S. Virgin Islands, St. Kitts & Nevis, Antigua & Barbuda, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Dominica, Saint Lucia, Grenada, Trinidad and St. Vincent. "Black Caribs," the descendants of the mixture of Africans live in St. Vincent whose total population is unknown. Some ethnic Carib communities remain on the American mainland, in countries such as Guyana and Suriname in South America, and Belize in Central America. The size of these communities varies widely.

During the beginning of 18th. century, the Island Carib population in St. Vincent was greater than the one in Dominica. Both the Island Caribs (Yellow Caribs) and the Black Caribs (Garifuna) fought against the British during the Second Carib War. After the end of the war, the British deported the Garifuna (whose population consisted of 4,338 people) to Roatan island, while the Island Caribs (whose population consisted of 80 people) were allowed to stay on St. Vincent.^[23] The 1812 eruption of La Soufrière destroyed the Carib territory, killing a majority of the Yellow Caribs. After the eruption, 130 Yellow Caribs and 59 Black Carbis survived on St. Vincent. Unable to recover from the damage caused by the eruption, 120 of the Yellow Caribs, under Captain Baptiste, emigrated to Trinidad. In 1830, the Carib population numbered less than 100.^[24][25] The population made a remarkable recovery after that, although almost the entire tribe would die out during the 1902 eruption of La Soufrière.

Religion[]

The Caribs are believed to have practiced polytheism. As the Spanish began to colonise the Caribbean area, they wanted to convert the natives to Catholicism.^[26] The Caribs destroyed a church of Franciscans in Aguada, Puerto Rico and killed five of its members, in 1579.^[27]

Currently, the remaining Kalinago in Dominica practice parts of Catholicism through baptism of children. However, not all practice Christianity. Some Caribs worship their ancestors and believe them to have magical power over their crops. One strong religious belief Caribs possess is that Creoles practice a style of indigenous spirituality that has witchcraft-like elements.^[28] Creole people are Caribs mixed with those who settled the island. An example of said people are Haitian Creoles, who speak a mix of French and the native Carib language. Many Caribs dislike the "impurities" that are perceived to be present in the Creole population.^[29]

Music[]

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Garifuna music from the Garifuna people, the descendants of Caribs, Arawak and West African people, is quite different from the music heard in the rest of Central America. The most famous form is punta. Its associated musical style, which has the dancers move their hips in a circular motion. An evolved form of traditional music, still usually played using traditional instruments, punta has seen some modernization and electrification in the 1970s; this is called punta rock. Traditional punta dancing is consciously competitive. Artists like Pen Cayetano helped innovate modern punta rock by adding guitars to the traditional music, and paved the way for later artists like Andy Palacio, and Black Coral. Punta was popular across the region, especially in Belize, by the mid-1980s, culminating in the release of in 1987, a compilation featuring many of the genre's biggest stars.

Other forms of Garifuna music and dance include: hungu-hungu, combination, wanaragua, abaimahani, matamuerte, laremuna wadaguman, gunjai, sambai, charikanari, eremuna egi, paranda, berusu, punta rock, teremuna ligilisi, arumahani, and Mali-amalihani. Punta is the most popular dance in Garifuna culture. It is performed around holidays and at parties and other social events. Punta lyrics are usually composed by the women. Chumba and hunguhungu are a circular dance in a three-beat rhythm, which is often combined with punta. There are other songs typical to each gender, women having eremwu eu and , rhythmic a cappella songs, and , men's work songs, chumba and hunguhungu, a circular dance in a three-beat rhythm, which is often combined with punta.

Drums play a very important role in Garifuna music. There are primarily two types of drums used: the primero (tenor drum) and the segunda (bass drum). These drums are typically made of hollowed-out hardwood such as mahogany or mayflower, with the skins coming from the peccary (wild bush pig), deer, or sheep.

Also used in combination with the drums are the sisera. These shakers are made from the dried fruit of the gourd tree, filled with seeds, then fitted with hardwood handles.

Paranda music developed soon after the Garifunas arrival in Central America. The music is instrumental and percussion-based. The music was barely recorded until the 1990s, when Ivan Duran of began the .

In contemporary Belize there has been a resurgence of Garifuna music, popularized by musicians such as Andy Palacio, Mohobub Flores, & Adrian Martinez. These musicians have taken many aspects from traditional Garifuna music forms and have fused them with more modern sounds. Described as a mixture of punta rock and paranda. One great example is Andy Palacio's album Watina, and Umalali: The Garifuna Women's Project, both released on the Belizean record label Stonetree Records.

In the Garifuna culture, there is another dance called Dugu. This dance is a ritual done following a death in the family, to pay their respects to their loved one. In 2001, Garifuna music was proclaimed one of the masterpieces of the oral and intangible heritage of humanity by UNESCO.

Ancestral honor[]

The Island Carib word karibna meant "person". It became the origin of the English word "cannibal".^[30] Although, among the Caribs, it was apparently associated with rituals related to the eating of war enemies. There is evidence as to the taking of human trophies and the ritual cannibalism of war captives among both Arawak and other Amerindian groups such as the Carib and Tupinamba.^[31]

The Caribs had a tradition of keeping bones of their ancestors in their houses. Missionaries, such as Père Jean Baptiste Labat and , described the practice as part of a belief that the ancestral spirits would always look after the bones and protect their descendants. The Caribs have been described as vicious and violent people in the history of the people who battled against other tribes. Rochefort stated they did not practice cannibalism.^[32]

During his third voyage to North America, after exploring Florida, the Bahamas and the Lesser Antilles, Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano was killed and is said to have been eaten by Carib natives on what is now Guadeloupe (French West Indies) in 1528 (before a place called Karukera by the Amerindian people meaning “the island of beautiful waters”). Historian William Riviere,^[33] however, has described most of the cannibalism as related to war rituals.

Medicine[]

The Kalinago is somewhat known for their extensive use of herbs for medicinal practices. Today, a combination of bush medicine and modern medicine is used by the Caribs of Dominica. For example, various fruits and leaves are used to heal common ailments. For a sprain, oils from coconuts, snakes, and bay leaves are used to heal the injury. In Carib history, a more extensive use of plant and animal products were used for medicine, but with modernization and discovery of more effective and safe techniques, more Caribs are seen using local hospitals today.^[34]

Canoes[]

Canoes are a significant aspect of the Kalinago's material culture and economy. They are used for transport from the Southern continent and islands of the Caribbean, as well as providing them with the ability to fish more efficiently and to grow their fishing industry. ^[35] Canoes, constructed from the Burseraceae, Cedrela odorata, Ceiba pentandra, and Hymenaea courbaril trees, serve different purposes depending on their height and thickness of the bark. The Ceiba pentandra tree is not only functional but spiritual and believed to house spirits that would become angered if disturbed. ^[36] Canoes have been used throughout the history of the Kalinago and have become a renewed interest within the manufacturing of traditional dugout canoes used for inter-island transportation and fishing. ^[37]

Kalinago canoe project[]

In 1997 Dominica Carib artist Jacob Frederick and Tortola artist Aragorn Dick Read joined forces and set out to build a traditional canoe based on the fishing canoes still used in Dominica, Guadeloupe and Martinique. The project consisted of a return voyage by canoe to the Orinoco delta to meet up with the Kalinago tribes still living in those parts. On the way, a cultural assessment was carried out and ties were re-established with the remaining communities along the island chain. A documentary, The Quest of the Carib Canoe, was made by the BBC.^[38] The expedition sent shock waves through the Lesser Antilles as it made the local governments aware of the presence and the struggles for cultural survival of the Kalinago.^{[citation needed]}

See also[]

• Carib Expulsion
• Carib language
• Cariban languages
• Kalinago Genocide of 1626
• Santa Rosa Carib Community

References[]

Further reading[]

• Patrick Leigh Fermor, The Traveller's Tree, 1950, pp. 214–5

Resources[]

• Allaire, Louis (1997). "The Caribs of the Lesser Antilles", in Samuel M. Wilson, The Indigenous People of the Caribbean, pp. 180–185. Gainesville, Florida: University of Florida. ISBN 0-8130-1531-6.
• Steele, Beverley A. (2003). Grenada, A history of its people, New York: Macmillan Education, pp. 11–47
• Honeychurch, Lennox, The Dominica Story, MacMillan Education, 1995.
• Davis, D and Goodwin R.C. "Island Carib Origins: Evidence and non-evidence", American Antiquity, vol.55 no.1(1990).
• Eaden, John, The Memoirs of Père Labat, 1693–1705, Frank Cass, 1970.
• "Carib", Ethnologue
• "Kalinago", Name change announcement of November 15, 2010, by the Office of the Kalinago Council posted at Dominica News Online
• (in French) Brard, R., Le dernier Caraïbe, Bordeaux : chez les principaux libraires, 1849, Manioc : Livres anciens | L E dernier caraïbe. Bordeaux.
• Puerto Rico. Office of Historian (1949). Tesauro de datos historicos: indice compendioso de la literatura histórica de Puerto Rico, incluyendo algunos datos inéditos, periodísticos y cartográficos (in Spanish). Impr. del Gobierno de Puerto Rico. p. 22. Retrieved 4 January 2020.

External links[]

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Caribs.

• Quest of the Carib Canoe - documentary [1]
• The Quest of the Carib Canoe - dead link.
• Mainland Carib artwork, National Museum of the American Indians
• Yurumein (Homeland): A Documentary on Caribs in St. Vincent
• Guanaguanare - the Laughing Gull. Carib Indians in Trinidad - includes 2 videos