Paleobiota of the Hell Creek Formation

This is an overview of the fossil flora and fauna of the Maastrichtian-Danian Hell Creek Formation.

Invertebrates[]

Insects like Diptera, Zygopteran, and possibly hemiphlebiid damselflies have been unearthed in Hell Creek in amber.^[1]^[2] Fossils found in the Hell Creek Formation and the Fort Union Formation of these insects went extinct during the K-T Event.^[3]^[4]^[5]

hideInvertebrates
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
					Freshwater Pelecypod


					Freshwater mussel of family Unionidae.^[6]
Pleurobema					Freshwater mussel of family Unionidae.^[6]
Plethobasus					Freshwater mussel of family Unionidae.^[6]
Plethobasus
Quadrula					Freshwater mussel of family Unionidae.^[6]
					Freshwater mussel of family Unionidae.^[6]








?Obovaria
Corbicula
Corbicula	C. sp				From a marine facies ("tongue") in South Dakota. Modern members of this genus live in fresh water
Sphaerium	S. beckmani				"". "Nut clam". "Fingernail clam". "". Family Sphaeriidae.
	Indeterminate
Campeloma	C. sp				Freshwater snail
Anomia					Bivalve. Family Anomiidae. From a marine facies ("tongue") in South Dakota.
Crassostrea					Oyster. Family Ostreidae. Collected from a marine facies ("tongue") in South Dakota.
	G. sp				Bivalve. Family Cardiidae (cockle). Collected from a marine facies ("tongue") in South Dakota.
?Hiatella	?H. sp				Bivalve. Present members of this genus are . Collected from a marine facies ("tongue") in South Dakota.
	indeterminate				Bivalve. Family . Collected from a marine facies ("tongue") in South Dakota.
Sphenodiscus					Ammonite. From a marine facies ("tongue") in South Dakota.
Discoscaphites	D. rossi				Microconch of an ammonite. From a marine facies ("tongue") in South Dakota.
Scaphitidae	indeterminate				Ammonite. From a marine facies ("tongue") in South Dakota. Other attributes: specimen has hooks on its shell.
					hispine beetle. ("leaf beetle")

Amphibians[]

Color key

Taxon	Reclassified taxon	Taxon falsely reported as present	Dubious taxon or junior synonym	Ichnotaxon	Ootaxon	Morphotaxon

Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; ~~crossed out~~ taxa are discredited.

hideAmphibians reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Anura (frog)^[7]	indeterminate^[7]	North Dakota^[8] South Dakota^[8]	Middle to upper Hell Creek Formation^[9]	3 unassigned specimens^[10]	Anura indet. consists of material not currently assigned to any genus of frog.^[7]
Barbourula^[11]	Indeterminate^[12]	Montana^[13]
Caudata (salamander)^[7]	indeterminate^[7]	North Dakota^[8] South Dakota^[8]	Lower to uppermost Hell Creek Formation^[9]	149 unassigned specimens^[10]	Material of Caudata indet. is not currently assigned to any genus.^[7]
Eopelobates^[14]	Indeterminate^[12]	Montana^[13]
Habrosaurus^[7]^[12]	H. dilatus^[7]^[12]	Montana^[13] North Dakota^[8] South Dakota^[8]	Middle to upper Hell Creek Formation^[9]	6 specimens^[10]	Habrosaurus is a sirenid amphibian.^[7]
Lisserpeton^[12]	L. bairdi^[12]	Montana^[13]
Opisthotriton^[7]^[12]	O. kayi^[7]^[12]	Montana^[13] North Dakota^[8] South Dakota^[8]	Lower to upper Hell Creek Formation^[9]	22 specimens^[10]	Opisthotriton is classified as a Batrachosauroididae.^[7]
Paranecturus^[15]	P. garbanii^[15]	Montana^[15]			A member of Proteidae.^[15]
Proamphiuma^[12]	P. cretacica^[12]	Montana^[13]
Prodesmodon^[12]	P. copei^[12]	Montana^[13]
Scapherpeton^[7]^[12]	S. tectum^[7]^[12]	Montana^[13] North Dakota^[8] South Dakota^[8]	Lower to upper Hell Creek Formation^[9]	144 specimens^[10]	Scapherpeton is a that is very common in the Hell Creek Formation.^[7]
Scotiophryne^[12]	S. pustulosa^[12]	Montana^[13]			A small frog

Fish[]

Bony fish[]

hideBony fishes
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Acipenser^[7]^[16]	^[16]	Montana^[17]			A sturgeon
Acipenser^[7]^[16]	cf. A. sp.^[7]	North Dakota^[8] South Dakota^[8]	Lower to upper Hell Creek Formation^[9]	18 specimens are tentatively assigned to Acipenser sp.^[10]	Acipenser sp. is tentatively referred to the genus.^[7]
Amia^[16]	A. fragosa^[16]	Montana^[17]			small amiid fish (ubiquitous). Closely related to the modern Bowfin
Belonostomus^[7]^[16]	B. longirostris^[7]^[16]	Montana^[17] North Dakota^[8] South Dakota^[8]	Lower to upper Hell Creek Formation^[9]	28 specimens^[10]	A long-snouted slender fish classified as an aspidorhynchid.^[7]
Coriops^[18]	C. amnicolus^[18]	Montana^[19]
^[7]	K. fragosa^[7]	North Dakota^[8] South Dakota^[8]	Lower to uppermost Hell Creek Formation^[9]	2610 specimens have been assigned to Kindleia, making it an extremely common genus.^[10]	Kindleia is a genus assigned to Amiidae, along with Melvius and Amia.^[7]
Lepisosteus^[7]^[16]	L. occidentalis^[7]^[16]	Montana^[17] North Dakota^[8] South Dakota^[8]	Lower to uppermost Hell Creek Formation^[9]	938 specimens are assigned to Lepidosteus^[10]	A that is very common in the Hell Creek Formation.^[7]
Melvius^[7]	M. thomasi^[7]	North Dakota^[8] South Dakota^[8]	Lower to upper Hell Creek Formation^[9]	6 specimens are assigned to Melvius^[10]	A large amiid fish.^[7]
Phyllodus	P. paulkatoi				Fish with columnar teeth
^[16]	P. montanensis^[16]	Montana^[17]
Paleopsephurus^[16]	P. wilsoni^[16]	Montana^[17]			A paddlefish
	P. montanensis				Fish (incertae sedis)
Paralbula^[20]	P. casei^[20]	Montana^[19]
^[18]	P. nanus^[18]	Montana^[19]			Small teleost fish
^[16]	Indeterminate^[16]	Montana^[17]
Pachyrhizodontoidei	Indeterminate				Fish
Protoscaphirhynchus^[16]	P. squamosus^[16]	Montana^[17]			A sturgeon

Cartilaginous fish[]

hideChondrichthyes reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Chiloscyllium^[21]	C. sp.^[21]	Montana^[21]			A member of Hemiscylliidae.^[21]
Galagadon^[22]	G. nordquistae	South Dakota		Isolated teeth	A carpet shark
Lonchidion^[23]	L. selachos^[23]	Montana^[24] North Dakota^[8] South Dakota^[8]	Lower to upper Hell Creek Formation^[9]	40 specimens^[10]	A genus of prehistoric sharks in the family Hybodontidae. It makes up 0.4% of the remains of the vertebrates of the Hell Creek Formation.^[7]
Myledaphus^[21]	M. pustulosus^[21]	Montana^[21] North Dakota^[8] South Dakota^[8]	Lower to upper Hell Creek Formation.^[9]	1677 specimens^[10] previously assigned to M. bipartitus.^[21]	Is an anacoracid batoid^[7] rajiform related to guitarfishes.^[21] Described on the basis of teeth formerly assigned to the species M. bipartitus.^[21] The material assigned to Myledaphus bipartitus and makes up 16.5% of the vertebrate remains.^[7]
^[21]	P. estesi^[21]	Montana^[21]			A member of Ginglymostomatidae.^[21] Formerly assigned to the genus Brachaelurus.
^[21]	R. americana^[21]	Montana^[21] North Dakota^[8] South Dakota^[8]	Middle Hell Creek Formation^[9]	5 specimens previously assigned to Squatirhina^[10]	A wobbegong-like shark.^[21] Formerly assigned to Squatirhina. The remains consist of 0.05% of the vertebrates.^[10] Also known from the Lance Formation.^[21]
Carcharhinidae indet.^[22]	Indeterminate	South Dakota		An isolated tooth.

Dinosaurs[]

A paleo-population study is one of the most difficult of analyses to conduct in field paleontology. Here is the most recent estimate of the proportions of the eight most common dinosaurian families in the Hell Creek Formation, based on detailed field studies by White, Fastovsky and Sheehan (1998).^{[citation needed]}

Ceratopsidae 61%
Hadrosauridae 23%
Ornithomimidae 5%
Tyrannosauridae 4%
Hypsilophodontidae 3%
Dromaeosauridae 2%
Pachycephalosauridae 1%
Troodontidae 1% (represented only by teeth)

Pie chart of the time averaged census for large-bodied dinosaurs from the entire Hell Creek Formation in the study area.

Outcrops sampled by the Hell Creek Project were divided into three sections: lower, middle and upper slices. The top and bottom sections were the focus of the PLoS One report, and within each portion many remains of Triceratops, Edmontosaurus, and Tyrannosaurus were found. Triceratops was the most common in each section, but, surprisingly, Tyrannosaurus was just as common, if not slightly more common, than the hadrosaur Edmontosaurus. In the upper Hell Creek section, for example, the census included twenty two Triceratops, five Tyrannosaurus, and five Edmontosaurus.

The dinosaurs Thescelosaurus, Ornithomimus, Pachycephalosaurus and Ankylosaurus were also included in the breakdown, but were relatively rare. Other dinosaurs, such as Sphaerotholus, Denversaurus, Torosaurus, Struthiomimus, Acheroraptor, Dakotaraptor, Pectinodon, Richardoestesia, Paronychodon, Anzu, Leptorhynchos and Troodon (more likely Pectinodon), were reported as being rare and are not included in the breakdown.

The dinosaur collections made over the past decade during the Hell Creek Project yielded new information from an improved genus-level collecting schema and robust data set that revealed relative dinosaur abundances that were unexpected, and ontogenetic age classes previously considered rare. We recognize a much higher percentage of Tyrannosaurus than previous surveys. Tyrannosaurus equals Edmontosaurus in U3 and in L3 comprises a greater percentage of the large dinosaur fauna as the second-most abundant taxon after Triceratops, followed by Edmontosaurus. This is surprisingly consistent in (1) the two major lag deposits (MOR loc. HC-530 and HC-312) in the Apex sandstone and Jen-rex sand where individual bones were counted and (2) in two thirds of the formation reflected in L3 and U3 records of dinosaur skeletons only.

Triceratops is by far the most common dinosaur at 40% (n = 72), Tyrannosaurus is second at 24% (n = 44), Edmontosaurus is third at 20% (n = 36), followed by Thescelosaurus at 8% (n = 15), Ornithomimus at 5% (n = 9), and Pachycephalosaurus and Ankylosaurus both at 1% (n = 2) are relatively rare.

Fossil footprints of dinosaurs from the Hell Creek Formation are very rare. As of 2017, there is only one find of a possible Tyrannosaurus rex footprint, dating from 2007 and described a year later.^[25] A trackway made by mid-sized theropod, possibly a small tyrannosaurid individual, was discovered in South Dakota in 1997, and in 2014 these footprints were named Wakinyantanka styxi.^[26]

Ornithischians[]

Ankylosaurs[]

hideAnkylosauria reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Ankylosaurus^[27]	A. magniventris^[27]	Montana^[27]	Upper	A partial skull, teeth, cervical vertebrae, dorsal vertebrae, caudal vertebrae, right scapulocoracoid, otic capsule, maxilla fragment, right jugal, left jugal and quadratojugal, sacral centra, additional fragments of the cervical half rings and a partial tail club handle.	An ankylosaur. Also found in the Lance, Frenchman, Ferris and Scollard Formations.
Denversaurus^[27]	D. schlessmani^[27]	Montana^[27] South Dakota^[28]		Skull roof, pelvis and osteoderms.	A nodosaurid ankylosaur.

Pachycephalosaurs[]

An undescribed Pachycephalosaur is present in North Dakota.^[29] Pachycephalosaur remains have been unearthed in Montana as in the case of the now invalid genus Stenotholus kohleri, which is now a junior synonym of Pachycephalosaurus.^[30]

hidePachycephalosaurs reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Dracorex^[31]	D. hogwartsia^[31]	South Dakota^[31]	Middle^[31]		A pachycephalosaur, possibly synonymous with Pachycephalosaurus.
Pachycephalosaurus^[27]	P. wyomingensis^[27]	Montana^[27] South Dakota^[28]			A pachycephalosaur. Also found in the Lance Formation.
Sphaerotholus^[27]	S. buchholtzae^[27]	Montana^[27]	Upper^[32]	"Skull material."^[33]	A pachycephalosaur whose remains have been found in the Frenchman Formation, Kirtland Formation, and the Horseshoe Canyon Formation.
Stygimoloch^[27]	S. spinifer^[27]	Montana^[27] South Dakota North Dakota			A pachycephalosaur, possibly synonymous with Pachycephalosaurus. Also found in the Ferris Formation and the Lance Formation.

Ceratopsians[]

Indeterminate ceratopsid teeth and some identifiable bones from Triceratops can be extremely common.^[34]^[35] 8.31% of all vertebrate remains from the Hell Creek Formation are unassigned ceratopsids.^[10] In 2012, a new unidentified species of chasmosaur ceratopsian with noticeable differences from Triceratops was unearthed in South Dakota by a fossil hunter named John Carter.^[36]^[37]^[38]

Color key

Taxon	Reclassified taxon	Taxon falsely reported as present	Dubious taxon or junior synonym	Ichnotaxon	Ootaxon	Morphotaxon

Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; ~~crossed out~~ taxa are discredited.

hideCeratopsians reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	Synonyms	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Leptoceratops^[27]	L. gracilis^[27]		Montana^[27]			A small primitive-looking ceratopsian. Fossils have also been found in the Lance Formation in Wyoming.^[39]
Tatankaceratops^[40]	T. sacrisonorum^[40]		South Dakota^[40]			A ceratopsian possibly synonymous with Triceratops^[41]
Torosaurus^[7]^[27]	T. latus^[7]^[27]		Montana^[27] North Dakota^[8]^[29] South Dakota^[8]^[28]	Upper Hell Creek Formation^[9]		A ceratopsian possibly synonymous with Triceratops.^[42] A rare ceratopsid.^[9] Fossils have been in the Lance Formation, Javelina Formation, North Horn Formation, Laramie Formation and El Picacho Formation.
Triceratops^[7]^[27]	T. horridus^[7]^[27]	T. serratus^[27] Ugrosaurus olsoni^[43]	Montana^[27] North Dakota^[8]^[29] Wyoming South Dakota^[8]^[28]	Lowermost to the middle Hell Creek Formation^[44]	Four specimens are assigned to Triceratops horridus from the Hell Creek Formation.^[10] Isolated, shed ceratopsid teeth are incredibly common in the Hell Creek and Lance Formations, being by most collectors, with some being nothing more than worn down fragments up to superb teeth containing complete, preserved roots. Because the teeth of different ceratopsians are so similar to one another, its hard to differentiate between genera/species, but based on the abundance of identifiable bones belonging to Triceratops in Lancian-aged North American formations, especially the Hell Creek, isolated ceratopsid teeth from the lower and middle Hell Creek Formation have a high likelihood of originating from T. horridus.	A ceratopsian.^[7] Also found in the Evanston, Frenchman, Lance, Laramie, and Scollard Formations.
Triceratops^[7]^[27]	T. prorsus^[27]		Montana^[27] South Dakota	Upper 1/3 of the Hell Creek Formation^[44]	Very common.^{[citation needed]} Because the teeth of different ceratopsians are so similar to one another, its hard to differentiate between genera/species, but based on the abundance of identifiable bones belonging to Triceratops in Lancian-aged North American formations, especially the Hell Creek, isolated ceratopsid teeth from the upper 1/3 of the Hell Creek Formation have a high likelihood of originating from T. prorsus.	Also found in the Frenchman and Lance Formations.

Ornithopods and relatives[]

Indeterminate hadrosaurid remains are very common in the Hell Creek Formation.^[7]

hideOrnithopods and Thescelosaurs reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	Synonyms	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Edmontosaurus	E. annectens	Anatosaurus annectens^[45] Anatotitan copei^[45]	Montana^[27] South Dakota^[28] North Dakota(Mummy Fossil)^[46]^[47]		Very common.	A hadrosaur. Also found in the Denver, Frenchman, Lance, Laramie, and Scollard Formations.^[48]^[49]
Thescelosaurus^[28]	T. garbanii^[50]^[51]	Bugenasaura garbanii^[51]	Montana^[50] South Dakota^[52]
	T. neglectus^[7]^[28]		North Dakota^[8] South Dakota^[8]^[28]	Lower to upper Hell Creek Formation^[9]	50 specimens^[10]	A small thescelosaurine. Also found in the Frenchman, Lance, Laramie, and Scollard Formations.^[53] Two species are known from Hell Creek; T. negelctus and T. garbanii.^[54]

Theropods[]

Theropod tracks have been found in South Dakota.^[28] A trackway from South Dakota, named Wakinyantanka, was made by a mid-sized theropod with three slender toes, possibly a small tyrannosaurid.^[26] A second footprint that may have been made by a specimen of Tyrannosaurus was first reported in 2007 by British paleontologist Phil Manning, from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana.^[55] This second track measures 72 centimeters (28 in) long, shorter than the track described by Lockley and Hunt. Whether or not the track was made by Tyrannosaurus is unclear, though Tyrannosaurus is the only large theropod known to have existed in the Hell Creek Formation, though in past albertosaurine remains have described here but its most likely that they are the remains of Tyrannosaurus rex.^[56]^[57] Theropod remains are very common in Hell Creek, some of which belong to indeterminate species on maniraptorans.^[58]

Alvarezsaurs[]

hideAlvarezsaurs reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	Synonyms	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
"Ornithomimus"	"O." minutus
Trierarchuncus^[27]	T. prairiensis^[27]		Montana^[27]	upper Hell Creek Formation.		An alvarezsaur known from a partial post-cranial skeleton.^[59]

Tyrannosaurids[]

hideTyrannosaurids reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	Synonyms	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Tyrannosaurus^[7]^[27]	T. rex^[7]^[27]	Albertosaurus megagracilis^[27] Aublysodon molnari^[27] Dinotyrannus megagracilis^[27] Nanotyrannus lancensis?	Montana^[27] North Dakota^[8]^[29] South Dakota^[8]^[28]	Lower to upper Hell Creek Formation.		A tyrannosaur, known from several specimens including a juvenile nicknamed "Jane". Also found in the Denver, Frenchman, , Javelina, Lance, Ferris, Livingston, McRae, North Horn, Scollard, Willow Creek Formation, and also found in Lomas Coloradas Formations. Isolated teeth in the Hell Creek are common enough to be dug commercially by collectors, but rare enough that they are often sold for very high prices with fragmentary teeth usually beginning at least in the hundreds of USD, and complete teeth in the thousands of USD.
Nanotyrannus?^[7]^[27]	N.lancensis^[7]^[27]	Stygivenator? Deinodon lancensis Albertosaurus lancensis^[27] Tyrannosaurus lancensis?	Montana Wyoming	Lower to upper Hell Creek Formation.	A few specimens are known	Invalid genus, now recognised as juvenile T. rex.

Ornithomimosaurs[]

Ornithomimid remains are not uncommon in the Hell Creek Formation.^[7] Fifteen specimens from the Hell Creek Formation are undetermined ornithomimids^[10]

Color key

Taxon	Reclassified taxon	Taxon falsely reported as present	Dubious taxon or junior synonym	Ichnotaxon	Ootaxon	Morphotaxon

Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; ~~crossed out~~ taxa are discredited.

hideOrnithomimids reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
"Orcomimus"	unnamed	South Dakota^[60]		One partial skeleton.	An ornithomimid. Numem nudum
Struthiomimus^[28]	S. sedens^[61]	Montana		AMNH 975, a foot claw UCMP 154569, a partial skeleton	A large ornithomimid similar to Gallimimus in size. Also found in the Lance Formation.^[61]
Ornithomimus	O. velox^[61]	Montana South Dakota North Dakota		Fragmentary specimens	A ornithomimid which was also found in the Denver Formation.

Oviraptorosaurs[]

Oviraptorosaur fossils have been found at the Hell Creek Formation for many years, most notably from isolated elements until the discovery of Anzu. In the past, oviraptorosaur fossils found were thought to have belonged to Caenagnathus, Chirostenotes, and Elmisaurus.^[27]^[62]^[63]^[64]^[65] In 2016, an undescribed large-bodied caenagnathid was unearthed in Montana.^[66]

Color key

Taxon	Reclassified taxon	Taxon falsely reported as present	Dubious taxon or junior synonym	Ichnotaxon	Ootaxon	Morphotaxon

Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; ~~crossed out~~ taxa are discredited.

hideOviraptorosaurs reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Anzu^[27]^[62]	A. wyliei^[62]	North Dakota^[8]^[62] South Dakota^[8]^[62]	Lower to upper Hell Creek Formation^[10]	12 well-preserved specimens^[9]	One of the largest known oviraptorosaurs, and the largest known from North America. Material previously assigned to Caenagnathidae indet. is now placed in the genus Anzu.^[62]
Caenagnathidae	Indeterminate	Montana			Similar to Citipes and Elmisaurus.

Eumaniraptorans[]

Historically, numerous teeth have been attributed to various dromaeosaurid and troodontid taxa with known body fossils from only older formations, including Saurornithoides, Zapsalis, Dromaeosaurus, Saurornitholestes, and Troodon. However, in a 2013 study, Evans et al. concluded that there is little evidence for more than a single dromaeosaurid taxon, Acheroraptor, in the Hell Creek-Lance assemblages, which would render these taxa invalid for this formation. This was disproved in a 2015 study, DePalma et al., when they described the new genus Dakotaraptor, a large species of dromaeosaur.^[67] Fossilized teeth of various troodontids and coelurosaurs are common throughout the Hell Creek Formation; the best known examples include Paronychodon, Pectinodon and Richardoestesia, respectively. Teeth belonging to possible intermediate species of Dromaeosaurus^[68] and Saurornitholestes^[69] have been unearthed at the Hell Creek Formation and the nearby Lance Formation.

hideEumaniraptorans reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Acheroraptor^[67]	A. temertyorum ^[67]	Montana^[67] North Dakota?^[7] South Dakota?^[7]	Lower? to upper Hell Creek Formation^[7]	ROM 63777, a maxilla and tooth^[67] ROM 63778, a partial dentary^[67] isolated teeth^[67]	A velociraptorine dromaeosaurid. Teeth previously referred to various Campanian dromaeosaurids Saurornitholestes and Dromaeosaurus, frequently found throughout the formation, probably belong to this one species. Evans et al. conclude that there is little evidence for the former two taxa being present in the Hell Creek-Lance assemblages.^[67]
Avisaurus^[7]	A. archibaldi^[7]^[27]	Montana^[7]	Middle Hell Creek Formation^[9]	UCMP 117600, holotype, a tarsometatarsus PU 17324, a tarsometatarsus	An avisaurid.^[7]
	cf. A. archibaldi^[70]	Montana^[70]	Uppermost Hell Creek Formation^[70]	YPM 57235, a coracoid	An avisaurid tentatively referred to A. archibaldi based on its size.^[70]
	A. sp.^[71]	Montana^[71]		distal tarsals, metatarsus (juvenile)^[71]
Brodavis^[72]	B. baileyi^[72]	South Dakota^[72]		UNSM 50665, a left tarsometatarsus missing proximal end, trochleae II and III.^[72]	A primitive hesperornithiform.^[72]
Dakotaraptor^[73]	D. steini ^[73]	South Dakota^[73]	Upper Hell Creek Formation^[73]	PBMNH.P.10.113.T, a partial skeleton.^[73] PBMNH.P.10.115.T, a tibia.^[73] PBMNH.P.10.118.T, an astragalocalcaneum.^[73] isolated teeth.^[73]	A dromaeosaurid. Second-largest dromaeosaurid known.^[67]
Paronychodon^[74]	P. caperatus ^[75]	North Dakota, South Dakota, and Montana.		YPM 10624, a fossilized tooth. Teeth of this genus have been found too.	A troodontid theropod who is known from fossil teeth. Fossils have also been found in the Lance Formation in Wyoming.
Pectinodon^[76]^[77]	P. bakkeri ^[76]^[78]	Montana		UCM 38445, a fossilized tooth. Teeth of this genus have been found too.	A troodontid theropod who is known from fossil teeth. Fossils have also been found in the Lance Formation in Wyoming.
Potamornis^[72]	P. skutchi ^[79]	Montana^[79]		UCMP 117605, a tarsometatarsus	A hesperornithiform also found in the Lance Formation.^[79]
Richardoestesia ^[80] ^[81]	R. sp. ^[82] ^[81]	Montana.		Teeth.	A coelurosaur that is known from teeth and from two species Richardoestesia gilmorei and Richardestesia isosceles, which have also been unearthed in the Lance Formation in Wyoming.
"Unnamed enantiornithine B"^[70]	Unnamed	Montana^[70]		YPM 57823, a partial coracoid^[70]	An unnamed enantiornithean.^[70]
"Unnamed hesperornithiform A"^[70]	Unnamed	Montana		UCMP 13355, a tarsometatarsus	A primitive hesperornithiform.^[72] The Hell Creek specimen was referred to the same unnamed taxon as RSM P 2315.1 from the Canadian Frenchman Formation.^[70] RSM P 2315.1 was later made the holotype of Brodavis americanus.^[72] May be a synonym of Potamornis.^[70]
"Unnamed ornithurine B"^[70]	Unnamed^[83]	Montana^[84]		UCMP 129143, a partial coracoid^[70]	An ornithurine possibly similar to Cimolopteryx^[70]^[83]
"Unnamed ornithurine C"^[70]	Unnamed	Montana^[70] South Dakota^[70]		SDSM 64281A, a partial coracoid^[70] SDSM 64281B, a partial coracoid^[70] UCMP 175251, a partial coracoid^[70] MOR 2918, a partial coracoid^[70]	An ornithurine, also present in the Lance Formation and Fort Union Formation, one of the few individual bird species known to have survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction^[70]
"Unnamed ornithurine D"^[70]	Unnamed	Montana^[70]		UCMP 187207, a partial coracoid^[70]	An ichthyornithean also present in the Frenchman Formation^[70]

Pterosaurs[]

Indeterminate azhdarchid remains, most likely belong to Quetzalcoatlus or an unidentified genus, have been found in Hell Creek as well as the Javelina Formation and the Ojo Alamo Formation.^[85]^[86] Indeterminate pteranodontid remains have also been found here as well.^[87]^[88]

hidePterosaurs of the Hell Creek Formation
Taxa	Species	State	Stratigraphic location	Material	Notes	Images
Azhdarchidae spp.	Indeterminate	Montana^[89] North Dakota			Records of pterosaur remains from the Hell Creek Formation are two indeterminate specimens, which have been recorded from North Dakota but not described (Johnson et al., 2000; Pearson et al., 2002). A single azhdarchid neck bone may belong to the genus Quetzalcoatlus, though they are not diagnostic to the generic level.^[89]
Pterosaur spp.^[90]	Indeterminate	South Dakota

Crocodylomorphs[]

Color key

Taxon	Reclassified taxon	Taxon falsely reported as present	Dubious taxon or junior synonym	Ichnotaxon	Ootaxon	Morphotaxon

Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; ~~crossed out~~ taxa are discredited.

hideCrocodylomorphs reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Borealosuchus^[91]	B. sternbergii^[91]	Montana North Dakota South Dakota			Extinct genus of crocodylians that lived from the Late Cretaceous to the Eocene in North America.
Brachychampsa^[91]	B. montana^[91]	Montana South Dakota North Dakota			Extinct genus of alligatoroid.
Thoracosaurus^[91]	T. neocesariensis^[91]	Montana			Extinct genus of gavialoid crocodilian which existed during the Late Cretaceous and early Paleocene.

Turtles[]

Color key

Taxon	Reclassified taxon	Taxon falsely reported as present	Dubious taxon or junior synonym	Ichnotaxon	Ootaxon	Morphotaxon

Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; ~~crossed out~~ taxa are discredited.

hideTurtles reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Adocus^[92]	Indeterminate^[92]	Montana^[93]			Extinct genus of aquatic turtles belonging to the family Adocidae.
Axestemys^[94]	A. infernalis^[94]	Montana North Dakota South Dakota Wyoming			A turtle belonging to the family Trionychidae. Its fossils from the Hell Creek Formation were formerly assigned to the late Campanian species Axestemys splendidus.^[95]^[94]
Compsemys^[92]	C. victa^[92]	Montana^[93]			A relative of Dermatemydidae.
Peckemys	P. brinkman	Montana North Dakota			A relative of Baenidae.
Emarginachelys	E. cretacea	Montana			A relative of chelydrids.^[96]
^[92]	E. cephalica^[92]	Montana^[93]			Baenid turtle
Gamerabaena	G. sonsalla	North Dakota			Extinct genus of baenid turtle.
Palatobaena	P. cohen	North Dakota			A relative of extinct family of cryptodiran turtles.
Cedrobaena	C. putorius	South Dakota North Dakota			A relative of Baenidae.
Gilmoremys	G. lancensis	Montana North Dakota			Trionychidae related to the softshell turtle.
Hoplochelys^[96]	H. clark^[96]	North Dakota^[96]			A kinosternoid related to the Central American river turtle.^[96]
	P. sp				Trionychidae turtle.
Basilemys	B. sinuosa				Largest land tortoise.
Trionyx^[92]	Indeterminate^[92]	Montana^[93]			A genus of softshell turtles belonging to the family Trionychidae.
	A. foveatus				Trionychidae turtle.
	H. distincta				Trionychidae turtle.
	J. backmani				Thin-shelled macrobaenid turtle.
Plesiobaena	P. antiqua				Baenid turtle.
	S. estesi				Baenid turtle.
Neurankylus	N. eximius				Largest baenid turtle in Hell Creek Formation.
^[97]	S. gilberti	North Dakota		A population of over 30 individual skeletons	A member of the family Baenidae.
	T. insiliens				Baenid turtle.
Chelydridae	Indeterminate				Chelydrids-like turtle.

Squamata[]

Indeterminate mosasaur remains have been unearthed in North Dakota.^[98]^[99]

Color key

Taxon	Reclassified taxon	Taxon falsely reported as present	Dubious taxon or junior synonym	Ichnotaxon	Ootaxon	Morphotaxon

Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; ~~crossed out~~ taxa are discredited.

hideSquamates reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
^[100]^[101]	C. monstrosus^[100]^[101]	Montana^[100]			A platynotan lizard of uncertain phylogenetic placement, also known from the Lance Formation.^[100]
^[100]^[101]	C. robustus^[100]^[101]	Montana^[100]			An alethinophidian snake of uncertain phylogenetic placement.^[100]
Obamadon^[100]^[101]	O. gracilis^[100]^[101]	Montana^[100]			A polyglyphanodontian lizard of uncertain phylogenetic placement. Also known from the Lance Formation.^[100]
^[100]	P. aquilonius^[100]	Montana^[100]			A polyglyphanodontian lizard.^[100]
	H. placodon				Teiidae lizard.
	L. denticulatus				Small Teiidae lizard.
Chamops	C. segnis				Largest Teiidae lizard in Hell Creek Formation
	C. sloani				Scincidae? lizard.
	E. lancensis				xenosaurid lizard.
	P. jepseni				Anguidae lizard.
	P. wyomingensis				Necrosaurid lizard.
	P. bogerti				Helodermatidae? lizard.
Palaeosaniwa	P. canadensis				A large Monstersauria lizard, closely related to today's varanid lizards. It was the largest lizard in the Hell Creek formation.
Boidae	Indeterminate				Snake. Earliest-known boid.

Choristoderans[]

Color key

Taxon	Reclassified taxon	Taxon falsely reported as present	Dubious taxon or junior synonym	Ichnotaxon	Ootaxon	Morphotaxon

Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; ~~crossed out~~ taxa are discredited.

hideChoristoderans reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Champsosaurus^[91]	C. sp.^[91]	Montana			A champsosaur.

Mammals[]

Multituberculates[]

Color key

Taxon	Reclassified taxon	Taxon falsely reported as present	Dubious taxon or junior synonym	Ichnotaxon	Ootaxon	Morphotaxon

Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; ~~crossed out~~ taxa are discredited.

hideMultituberculates reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Cimexomys^[102]	C. minor^[102]	Montana^[102]			A multituberculate of uncertain phylogenetic placement.
Cimolodon^[102]	C. nitidus	Montana North Dakota^[102]			A cimolodontid multituberculate.
	C. cf. nitidus^[102]	South Dakota^[102]			A cimolodontid multituberculate.
	C. sp.^[102]	North Dakota^[102]			A cimolodontid multituberculate.
Cimolomys^[102]	C. gracilis	Montana^[102]			A cimolodontid multituberculate.
Cimolomys^[102]	C. cf. gracilis^[102]	South Dakota^[102]			A cimolomyid multituberculate.
Essonodon^[102]	E. browni^[102]	Montana^[102]			A cimolomyid multituberculate.
Meniscoessus^[102]	M. conquistus	South Dakota^[102]			A cimolomyid multituberculate.
	M. robustus	Montana North Dakota South Dakota^[102]			A cimolomyid multituberculate.
	M. cf. robustus	South Dakota^[102]			A cimolomyid multituberculate.
	M. sp.	North Dakota^[102]			A cimolomyid multituberculate.
	?M. sp.^[102]	North Dakota^[102]			A cimolomyid multituberculate.
Mesodma^[102]	M. formosa	Montana South Dakota^[102]			A neoplagiaulacid multituberculate.
	M. cf. formosa	Montana^[102]			A neoplagiaulacid multituberculate.
	M. hensleighi	Montana South Dakota^[102]			A neoplagiaulacid multituberculate.
	M. cf. hensleighi	South Dakota^[102]			A neoplagiaulacid multituberculate.
	M. thompsoni	Montana North Dakota South Dakota^[102]			A neoplagiaulacid multituberculate.
	M. cf. thompsoni	Montana^[102]			A neoplagiaulacid multituberculate.
	M sp.^[102]	Montana^[102]			A neoplagiaulacid multituberculate.
	?M sp.^[102]	Montana^[102]			A neoplagiaulacid multituberculate.
?Neoplagiaulax^[102]	?N. burgessi^[102]	Montana^[102]			A neoplagiaulacid multituberculate.
Paracimexomys^[102]	P. priscus^[102]	Montana^[102]			A multituberculate of uncertain phylogenetic placement.
Paressonodon^[103]	P. nelsoni^[103]				A cimolomyid multituberculate.
Stygimys	S. kuszmauli	Montana			It was a member of the extinct order Multituberculata.

Metatherians[]

Color key

Taxon	Reclassified taxon	Taxon falsely reported as present	Dubious taxon or junior synonym	Ichnotaxon	Ootaxon	Morphotaxon

Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; ~~crossed out~~ taxa are discredited.

hideMetatherians reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
^[104]^[105]	A. florencae	Montana North Dakota South Dakota^[102]			A .
^[104]^[105]	A. hatcheri^[104]	Montana South Dakota^[102]			A .
Alphadon^[102]	A. marshi	Montana North Dakota^[102]			An alphadontid. genus of small, primitive mammal that was a member of the Metatheria, a group of mammals that includes modern-day marsupials.
	A. cf. marshi	Montana South Dakota^[102]			An alphadontid.
	A. wilsoni	Montana^[102]			An alphadontid.
	A. cf. wilsoni	Montana^[102]			An alphadontid.
	A. sp.^[102]	North Dakota South Dakota^[102]			An alphadontid.
Didelphodon^[102]	D. padanicus	South Dakota^[102]			A stagodontid.
	D. vorax	Montana North Dakota^[102]			A stagodontid. genus of Stagodontidae marsupials from the Late Cretaceous of North America.
	D. cf. vorax	South Dakota^[102]			A stagodontid.
	D. sp.	North Dakota^[102]			A stagodontid.
	cf. D. sp.^[102]	North Dakota South Dakota^[102]			A stagodontid.
^[102]	G. twitchelli	Montana^[102]			A .
^[102]	G. cf. twitchelli^[102]	Montana^[102]			A .
Leptalestes^[104]	L. cooki	Montana^[102]			A .
Leptalestes^[104]	L. krejcii^[104]	Montana South Dakota^[102]			A .
Nanocuris^[103]	N. improvida^[103]				A deltatheridiid.
	N. jasoni (= N. intermedius)^[103]^[106]	Montana South Dakota			A herpetotheriid.
^[102]	P. elegans^[102]	Montana South Dakota^[102]			A .
Protalphadon^[102]	P. foxi	Montana^[102]			An alphadontid.
Protalphadon^[102]	P. lulli^[102]	Montana^[102]			An alphadontid.
^[102]	T. rhaister^[102]	Montana^[102]			An alphadontid.

Eutherians[]

Color key

Taxon	Reclassified taxon	Taxon falsely reported as present	Dubious taxon or junior synonym	Ichnotaxon	Ootaxon	Morphotaxon

Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; ~~crossed out~~ taxa are discredited.

hideEutherians reported from the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	State	Stratigraphic position	Material	Notes	Images
Altacreodus	A. magnus	Montana North Dakota			a possibe creodont, formerly a species of Cimolestes^[107]
^[102]	A. saskatchewanensis^[102]	Montana^[102]			A eutherian of uncertain phylogenetic placement.
	A. cerberoides	Montana			A eutherian of uncertain classification, formally a species of Cimolestes
^[102]	B. tenuis^[102]	Montana^[102]			A cimolestid eutherian.
Cimolestes^[102]	C. incisus	Montana^[102]			A cimolestid eutherian.
Cimolestes^[102]	C. stirtoni^[102]	Montana^[102]			A cimolestid eutherian.
Gypsonictops^[102]	G. hypoconus	Montana South Dakota^[102]			A gypsonictopsid eutherian.
	G. illuminatus	Montana North Dakota^[102]			A gypsonictopsid eutherian.
	G. cf. illuminatus	Montana^[102]			A gypsonictopsid eutherian.
	G. sp.^[102]	Montana^[102]			A gypsonictopsid eutherian.
cf. ^[102]	cf. Paranyctoides sp.^[102]	Montana^[102]			A nyctitheriid eutherian.
Protungulatum^[104]	P. coombsi^[104]	Montana^[104]			A stem-placental.
Purgatorius	P. ceratops	Montana			A genus with four species believed to be either stem-placentals or stem-primates.
	S. propalaeoryctes	Montana			A eutherian of uncertain classification, formally a species of Cimolestes

Flora[]

Although the first representatives of leafy trees and true grasses emerged in the Cretaceous, the flora was still dominated by conifers like Araucaria.

The Hell Creek Formation was a low floodplain at the time before the sea retreated, and in the wet ground of the dense woodland, laurels, sycamores, beech, magnolias, and palm trees grew. Ferns and moss grew in the forest understory. Plant fossils from the upper early Paleocene of the Hell Creek Formation include the ferns Botrychium, Woodwardia, Osmunda, Onoclea and Azolla; conifers Metasequoia, Glyptostrobus and cupressaceous conifers; the monocot Limnobiophyllum (a relative of duckweeds); and the dicots Cercidiphyllum and Platanus.^[108]^[109] There are numerous types of leaves, seeds, flowers and other structures from Angiosperms, or flowering plants. The Hell Creek Formation of this layer contains 300 tablets or more of plants. Angiosperms are by far the most diverse and dominant flora of the entire population, about 90 percent. However, the evergreens included conifers, ginkgo, bald cypress, and cycads. Flowering plants included a variety of trees that no longer exist. Today Hell Creek's flora is hardwood forest mixed with deciduous and evergreen forest and apparently similar to then, but with a closer look, the current plant community is distinct. In sharp contrast to Montana today, the presence of palm trees meant the climate was warmer then.

Fossil fruits from the Hell Creek Formation of Spinifructus antiquus of the palm family (Arecaceae), closely related to the genus ;;Astrocaryum.

Dr. Kirk Johnson claims that there are no grasses, oaks, maples, or willows in the Hell Creek Formation. Ferns are uncommon in the majority of the formation, however there is a great increase in the abundance of fossil fern spores in the two centimeters of rock that directly overlies the impact fallout layer (the famous K-T boundary layer). This increase in fern spore abundance is commonly referred to as "the fern spike" (meaning that if the abundance of spores as a function of stratigraphic position were plotted out, the graph would show a spike just above the impact fallout layer). Johnson also found that the majority of the angiosperm genera in the Hell Creek Formation are now extinct. He also believes that, very roughly, 80% of the terrestrial plant taxa died out in what is now Montana and the Dakotas at the K/T boundary.

Many of the modern plant affinities in the Hell Creek Formation (e.g., those with the prefix "aff." or with quotes around the genus name) may not in reality belong to these genera; instead they could be entirely different plants that resemble modern genera. Therefore, there is some question regarding whether the modern Populus or Juglans, as two examples, actually lived in the late Cretaceous.

Compared to the rich Hell Creek Formation fossil plant localities of the Dakotas, relatively few plant specimens have been collected from Montana. A few taxa were collected at Brownie Butte Montana by Shoemaker, but most plants were collected from North Dakota (Slope County) and from South Dakota. "TYPE" after the binomial means that it is represented by a type specimen found in the Yale-Peabody Museum collections. "YPM" is the prefix for the Yale-Peabody Museum specimen number.

Overview (from Johnson, 1997): 190 plant morphotypes, including:

1 bryophyte (mosses and liverworts)
6 "pteridophytes" (A paraphyletic group: modern examples are horsetails, club mosses and ferns.)
9 conifers
2 ginkgo (uncommon)
172 angiosperms (90% of all specimens collected, as well as 90% of all taxa found)

Ferns from Hell Creek
Cycads are found in Hell Creek
Ginkgo (uncommon) are found in Hell Creek
Various angiosperms from Hell Creek

Monkey-puzzle leaves are found in Hell Creek
Fossil palm trees indicate a hotter paleoclimate
Redwood seed cones are known from Hell Creek
Laurus are found in Hell Creek
Cercidiphyllum are found in Hell Creek
Magnolia is commonly found in Hell Creek

Plants of the Hell Creek Formation

various ferns and cycads.
Equisetum (Equisetaceae)

Gymnosperms

(Cupressaceae)
(Podocarpaceae)
Elatocladus (Taxodiaceae)
(Taxodiaceae)
(Taxodiaceae)
Araucaria (Araucariaceae)
very widespread Mesozoic conifer group. All members are extinct (Cheirolepidiaceae)

Ginkgos

Baiera
Ginkgo adiantoides

Angiosperms

Artocarpus (Moraceae)
Barberry family (Berberidaceae)
Cercidiphyllum (Cercidiphyllaceae)
(Sterculiaceae)
Laurel family (Lauraceae)
Magnolia (Magnoliaceae)
Palms (Arecaceae)
Platanus family includes today's American sycamore or plane tree (Platanaceae)

Color key

Taxon	Reclassified taxon	Taxon falsely reported as present	Dubious taxon or junior synonym	Ichnotaxon	Ootaxon	Morphotaxon

Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; ~~crossed out~~ taxa are discredited.

hideFlora of the Hell Creek Formation
Genus	Species	Location	Stratigraphic position	Abundance	Notes	Images
	"Aquilapollenites" attenuatus
	"Aquilapollenites" collaris
	"Aquilapollenites" conatus
	"Aquilapollenites" delicatus
	"Aquilapollenites" marmarthensis
	"Aquilapollenites" quadricretaeus
	"Aquilapollenites" quadrilobus
	"Aquilapollenites" reductus
	"Aquilapollenites" senonicus
	"Aquilapollenites" turbidus
	"Aquilapollenites" striatus

"Ficus"	"Ficus" planicostata
	"Ficus" artocarpoides
	"Ficus" trinervis
	Ilexpollenites compactus
	Interpollis cf. I. supplingensis
	Balmeisporites sp.
	Marmarthia pearsonii
"Myrica"	"Myrica" torreyi
	Platanites marginata
	Sabalites sp.
	Tricolpites interangulus
Metasequoia	M. sp				Casts of Dawn Redwood seed cones are known from the Hell Creek.
""	"G" saportana				Another generic Hamamelididae.
Annona?	A?. robusta				Abundant at Brownie Butte, Montana.
	C. corrugata				A prehistoric species of water lettuce, previously assigned to the genus Pistia.
Araucaria	A. araucana				Casts of Monkey-puzzle leaves are found in Hell Creek.
Artocarpus	A. lessigiana				Abundant at Brownie Butte, Montana.
Celastrus	C. taurenensis				Some may be .
Cinnamomum	C. lineafolia				Included in Ficus affinis by L. Hickey. Belongs in Rhamnaceae (modern buckthorns and Ceanothus). Some other specimens referred to (?) sp.), a real cinnamon bush.
	C. marginata				Also spelled "marginatus".
Juglans	J. leconteana
Liriodendrites	L. bradacci				Johnson, 1996. In the Magnoliidae: a common taxon.
Liriodendron	L. laramiense				May be related to today's tulip tree (yellow poplar).
	L. presrtocarpoides				another laurel.
	M. pearsonii				Johnson, 1996. In the Lauraceae: a common taxon.
	M. trivialis				Johnson, 1996. In the Lauraceae: a common taxon.
	P. marginata				Johnson, 1996. In the Platanaceae: Hamamelididae. A common taxon.
Quercus	Q. viburnifolia				Included within "Cissus" marginata. May be in the Platanaceae.
	D. trivialis				Included within "Cissus" marginata. May be in the Platanaceae.
	D. obtusa				Included within "Cissus" marginata. May be in the Platanaceae.
Rhamnus	R. cleburnii				A buckthorn look-alike.
Vitis	V. stantonii				This could be a real Vitus (a real grape).
Ziziphus	Z. fibrillosus
	A. catenulata
	A. polevoi
	B. niemii				Incertae sedis. Johnson, 1996. A broad leaf, probably in the Laurales. A common taxon. Type specimen was found near a Tyrannosaurus skeleton in South Dakota.
Cannabaceae	indeterminate
Cissites	C. insignis				May belong in .
	C. lobata
	C. puilasokensis
	C. interruptus
	D. trivialis
	E. longifolia				In , according to Leo Hickey.
	E. montana				Johnson, 1996. In the Platanaceae: Hamamelididae (related to today's Sycamore). A common taxon.
Ginkgo	G. adiantoides				The only ginkgo in the Hell Creek Formation; uncommon
Glyptostrobus	G. nordenskioldii
Glyptostrobus	G. sp
	L. wardiana
Magnolia	M. pulchra				This species was thought to occur only in southern Wyoming flora, but Leo Hickey claims it is found further north in Montana and the Dakotas.
Marchantia	M. pealii
Nilssonia	N. yukonensis				The only Hell Creek Formation cycadeoid. Uncommon.
Onoclea	O. hesperia
	P. hastata
	P. montanum
Porosia	P. verrucosa
Rhamnus	R. salicifolius				Another buckthorn look-alike. Abundant at Brownie Butte, Montana
	S. sp				Palm tree.
Sapindopsis	S. powelliana
	S. artus				Sequoia tree.
Taxodium	T. olrikii				Related to today's bald cypress.
	T. arctica
	T. nebrascensis
	Z. attenuata				Related to today's ginger plant. Its closest living relative is the Asian genus Alpinia. Some Hell Creek Formation specimens show damage from hispine beetles ("leaf beetles" (Wilf et al., 2000)).
	D. subfalcatum				One of the most common plant taxa in the Hell Creek and . Common at Brownie Butte, Montana. If it is close to real , then it is a beech/chestnut-like tree (Fagaceae). It may also be a walnut-like tree (Juglandaceae).
	D. tenneseensis				see above.
	aff. "Dryophyllum" subfalcatum				see above.
Populus	P. nebrascensis
Cocculus	cf. C. flabella
Cissites	cf. C. acerifolia
Pistia	cf. P. corrugata				Floating aquatic herb.
	P. inquirenda				A poppy with quite similar seed pods and seeds to that of the extant poppy genus Romneya.

References[]

^ DePalma, Robert; Cichocki, Frederich; Dierick, Manuel; Feeney, Robert (2010). "Preliminary Notes on the First Recorded Amber Insects from the Hell Creek Formation" (PDF). The Journal of Paleontological Sciences. JPS. C. 10: 1–7. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
^ Nel, André; DePalma, Robert A.; Engel, Michael S. (2010). "A possible hemiphlebiid damselfly in Late Cretaceous amber from South Dakota (Odonata: Zygoptera)". Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science. 113 (3/4): 231–234. doi:10.1660/062.113.0312. JSTOR 41309615. S2CID 84827761.
^ Messer, A'ndrea Eluse. "Leaf-mining insects destroyed with the dinosaurs, others quickly appeared". Penn State News. Pennsylvania State University. Retrieved 20 August 2014.
^ "North Dakota site shows wreckage from same object that killed the dinosaurs". UW News. University of Washington. Retrieved 29 March 2019.
^ Peterson, Douglas. "The Day the Dinosaurs Died". The New Yorker.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Graf, Dan; Cummings, Kevin. "The Mussel Project". UWSP Mussel Project. The University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point. Retrieved 7 June 2021.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai ^aj ^ak ^al ^am ^an ^ao ^ap ^aq ^ar ^as ^at ^au ^av ^aw ^ax ^ay ^az Pearson et al. (2002) p. 154
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai ^aj Pearson et al. (2002) pp. 145–167
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r Pearson et al. (2002) p. 155
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s Pearson et al. (2002) pp. 156
^ Listed as "cf. Barbourula sp." in "Class Amphibia," Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 4.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p "Class Amphibia," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 4.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ "Class Amphibia," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 4. All taxa listed occur in Montana, see page 1.
^ Listed as "Eopelobates? sp." in "Class Amphibia," Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 4.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d David G. Demar Jr. (2013). "A new fossil salamander (Caudata, Proteidae) from the Upper Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Hell Creek Formation, Montana, U.S.A". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 33 (3): 588–598. doi:10.1080/02724634.2013.734887. S2CID 128532897.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p "Class Osteichthyes," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 3.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h "Class Osteichthyes," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 3. All taxa listed occur in Montana, see page 1.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d "Class Osteichthyes," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 4.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c "Class Osteichthyes," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 4. All taxa listed occur in Montana, see page 1.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Listed as "cf. Paralbula casei" in "Class Osteichthyes," Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 4.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s Todd D. Cook; Michael G. Newbrey; Donald B. Brinkman; James I. Kirkland (2014). Euselachians from the freshwater deposits of the Hell Creek Formation of Montana. GSA Special Papers. Geological Society of America Special Papers. 503. pp. 229–246. doi:10.1130/2014.2503(08). ISBN 978-0-8137-2503-1.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Terry A. Gates; Eric Gorscak; Peter J. Makovicky (2019). "New sharks and other chondrichthyans from the latest Maastrichtian (Late Cretaceous) of North America". Journal of Paleontology. 93 (3): 512–530. doi:10.1017/jpa.2018.92.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b "Class Chondrichthyes," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 3.
^ "Class Chondrichthyes," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 3. All taxa listed occur in Montana, see page 1.
^ Manning, P. L.; Ott, C.; Falkingham, P. L. (2008). "The first tyrannosaurid track from the Hell Creek Formation (Late Cretaceous), Montana, U.S.A". PALAIOS. 23 (10): 645–647. Bibcode:2008Palai..23..645M. doi:10.2110/palo.2008.p08-030r. S2CID 129985735.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Lockley, M.; Triebold, M.; Janke, P. R. (2014). "Dinosaur Tracks from the Hell Creek Formation (Upper Cretaceous, Maastrichtian), South Dakota". Fossil Footprints of Western North America: New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science, Bulletin. 62: 459–468.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai ^aj ^ak ^al ^am ^an ^ao ^ap ^aq "Dinosaur distribution (Late Cretaceous; North America; Montana)." Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 584.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k "Dinosaur distribution (Late Cretaceous; North America; South Dakota)." Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 586.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d "Dinosaur distribution (Late Cretaceous; North America; North Dakota)." Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 585.
^ Giffin, Emily B.; Gabriel, Diane L.; Johnson, Rolf E. (22 January 1988). "A New Pachycephalosaurid Hell Creek Formation of Montana". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 7 (4): 398–407. doi:10.1080/02724634.1988.10011672. JSTOR 4523163. Retrieved 13 November 2020.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Bakker et al. (2006)
^ Williamson, Thomas E.; Carr, Thomas D. (2003). "A new genus of derived pachycephalosaurian from western North America". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 22 (4): 779–801. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2002)022[0779:ANGODP]2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
^ "Table 21.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 465.
^ Carpenter, Kenneth (2006). Horns and Beaks: Ceratopsian and Ornithopod Dinosaurs. 1320 E 10th St, Bloomington, IN 47405: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253348173. Retrieved 13 November 2020.CS1 maint: location (link)
^ RYAN, MICHAEL J.; CHINNERY-ALLGEIER, BRENDA J.; EBERTH, DAVID A.; RALRICK, PATRICIA E. (2010). New Perspectives on Horned Dinosaurs: The Royal Tyrrell Museum Ceratopsian Symposium. 1320 E 10th St, Bloomington, IN 47405: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253353580. JSTOR j.ctt16gzgng. Retrieved 13 November 2020.CS1 maint: location (link)
^ Biles, Jan. "Rare dinosaur skull being prepared for exhibition". Topeka Capital-Journal.com. Topeka Capital-Journal. Retrieved 7 September 2015.
^ "Super-sized Ceratopsian Skull Might be New Species". Everything Dinosaur. Retrieved 29 August 2015.
^ O' Connell, Max. "Dinosaur skull found in Buffalo likely a new species". Rapid City Journal. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
^ Ostrom, John H. (May 1978). "Leptoceratops gracilis from the "Lance" Formation of Wyoming". Journal of Paleontology. SEPM Society for Sedimentary Geology. 52 (3): 697–704. JSTOR 1303974. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Christopher J. Ott and Peter L. Larson, 2010, "A New, Small Ceratopsian Dinosaur from the Latest Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation, Northwest South Dakota, United States: A Preliminary Description", In: Ryan, M.J., Chinnery-Allgeier, B.J., and Eberth, D.A. (eds.) New Perspectives on Horned Dinosaurs: The Royal Tyrrell Museum Ceratopsian Symposium, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 656 pp.
^ Nicholas R. Longrich (2011). "Titanoceratops ouranous, a giant horned dinosaur from the Late Campanian of New Mexico". Cretaceous Research. 32 (3): 264–276. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2010.12.007.
^ Scannella, J.; Horner, J.R. (2010). "Torosaurus Marsh, 1891, is Triceratops Marsh, 1889 (Ceratopsidae: Chasmosaurinae): synonymy through ontogeny". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 30 (4): 1157–1168. doi:10.1080/02724634.2010.483632. S2CID 86767957.
^ Forster, Catherine A. (2016). "Taxomomic validity of the ceratopsid dinosaur Ugrosaurus olsoni (Cobabe and Fastovsky)". Journal of Paleontology. 67 (2): 316–318. doi:10.1017/S0022336000032273. ISSN 0022-3360.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Scannella, John B.; Fowler, Denver W.; Goodwin, Mark B.; Horner, John R. (2014-07-15). "Evolutionary trends in Triceratops from the Hell Creek Formation, Montana". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (28): 10245–10250. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11110245S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1313334111. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 4104892. PMID 24982159.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Campione, N.E.; Evans, D.C. (2011). "Cranial Growth and Variation in Edmontosaurs (Dinosauria: Hadrosauridae): Implications for Latest Cretaceous Megaherbivore Diversity in North America". PLOS ONE. 6 (9): e25186. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...625186C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025186. PMC 3182183. PMID 21969872.
^ Manning, Phillip L.; Morris, Peter M.; McMahon, Adam; Jones, Emrys; Gize, Andy; Macquaker, Joe H. S.; Wolff, George; Thompson, Anu; Marshall, Jim; Taylor, Kevin G.; Lyson, Tyler; Gaskell, Simon; Reamtong, Onrapak; Sellers, William I.; van Dongen, Bart E.; Buckley, Mike; Wogelius, Roy A. (7 October 2009). "Mineralized Soft-Tissue Structure and Chemistry in a Mummified Hadrosaur from the Hell Creek Formation, North Dakota (USA)". Proceedings: Biological Sciences. 276 (1672): 3429–3437. doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.0812. JSTOR 30244137. PMC 2817188. PMID 19570788.
^ Vajda, Vivi; Lyson, Tyler R.; Bercovici, Antonie; Doman, Jessman H.; Pearson, Dean A. (November 2013). "A snapshot into the terrestrial ecosystem of an exceptionally well-preserved dinosaur (Hadrosauridae) from the Upper Cretaceous of North Dakota, USA". Cretaceous Research. 46: 114–122. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2013.08.010.
^ Rohrer, W. L.; Konizeski, R. (May 1960). "On the Occurrence of Edmontosaurus in the Hell Creek Formation of Montana". 34. SEPM Society for Sedimentary Geology. 34 (3): 464–466. JSTOR 1300943. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
^ Wosik, Mateusz; Goodwin, Mark B.; Evans, David C. (February 2018). "A nestling-sized skeleton of Edmontosaurus (Ornithischia, Hadrosauridae) from the Hell Creek Formation of northeastern Montana, U.S.A., with an analysis of ontogenetic limb allometry". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 37 (6): e1398168. doi:10.1080/02724634.2017.1398168. S2CID 90735967. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Listed as "?Thescelosaurus garbanii" in "Dinosaur distribution (Late Cretaceous; North America; Montana)." Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 584.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Boyd, Clint A.; Brown, Caleb Marshal; Scheetz, Rodney D.; Clarke, Julia A. (12 September 2009). "Taxonomic Revision of the Basal Neornithischian Taxa Thescelosaurus and Bugenasaura". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 29 (3): 758–770. doi:10.1671/039.029.0328. JSTOR 20627088. S2CID 84273584.
^ Noted as being present, although misspelled as "Thescelosaurus garbani, in " "Dinosaur distribution (Late Cretaceous; North America; South Dakota)." Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 586.
^ Boyd, Brown, et al. (2009)
^ Galton, Peter M. (September 1974). "Notes on Thescelosaurus, a Conservative Ornithopod Dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous of North America, with Comments on Ornithopod Classification". Journal of Paleontology. SEPM Society for Sedimentary Geology. 48 (5): 1048–1067. JSTOR 1303302. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
^ Manning, Phillip L.; Ott, Christopher; Falkingham, Peter L. (September–October 2008). "A Probable Tyrannosaurid Track from the Hell Creek Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Montana, United States". PALAIOS. 23 (9/10): 645–647. Bibcode:2008Palai..23..645M. doi:10.2110/palo.2008.p08-030r. JSTOR 27670550. S2CID 129985735. Retrieved 13 November 2020.
^ Dalman, S.G.; Lucas, S.G. "A new large Tyrannosaurid Alamotyrannus brinkmani, n. gen., n. sp. (Theropoda: Tyrannosauridae), from the Upper Cretaceous Ojo Alamo Formation (Naashoibito Member), San Juan Basin, New Mexico". New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin.
^ Molnar, R.E. (January 1980). "An Albertosaur from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana". Journal of Paleontology. 54 (1): 102–108. JSTOR 1304167.
^ Molnar, R. E. (January 1978). "A New Theropod Dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous of Central Montana". Journal of Paleontology. SEPM Society for Sedimentary Geology. 52 (1): 73–82. JSTOR 1303791. Retrieved 13 November 2020.
^ Hutchinson and Chiappe, 1998. The first known alvarezsaurid (Theropoda: Aves) from North America. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 18(3), 447–450.
^ Triebold, 1997. The Sandy Site: Small Dinosaurs from the Hell Creek Formation of South Dakota. in Wolberg, Stump and Rosenberg (eds). Dinofest International: Proceedings of a Symposium sponsored by Arizona
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^ Stein, Walter W. (2019). "TAKING COUNT: A Census of Dinosaur Fossils Recovered From the Hell Creek and Lance Formations (Maastrichtian)". The Journal of Paleontological Sciences. 8: 1–42. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
^ Schachner, Emma; Larson, Tyler; Hanks, Harold (2006). "A preliminary report of a new specimen of Chirostenotes (Oviraptorosauria: Theropoda) from the Hell Creek Formation of North Dakota". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 26 (3).
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^ Benner, Elizabeth K. C.; Cullen, T. M.; Evans, D. C. (May 18–21, 2016). "MORPHOLOGICAL AND HISTOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF A NEW LARGE-BODIED 10 CAENAGNATHID SPECIMEN (THEROPODA: OVIRAPTOROSAURIA) FROM THE HELL CREEK FORMATION (MONTANA)" (PDF). Canadian Society of Vertebrate Paleontology: 17–18. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
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^ Russel, Dale A.; Manabe, Makoto (2002). "Synopsis of the Hell Creek (uppermost Cretaceous) dinosaur assemblage". Geological Society of America Special Papers. 361: 169–176. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
^ Dinosaur distribution (Late Cretaceous; North America; North Dakota). Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 585
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^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Stidham, 1999. North American avisaurids (Aves: Enantiornithes): New data on morphology and phylogeny. VII International Symposium on Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems, abstracts.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Larry D. Martin; Evgeny N. Kurochkin; Tim T. Tokaryk (2012). "A new evolutionary lineage of diving birds from the Late Cretaceous of North America and Asia". Palaeoworld. 21: 59–63. doi:10.1016/j.palwor.2012.02.005.
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^ Olshevsky, G., 1991, A Revision of the Parainfraclass Archosauria Cope, 1869, Excluding the Advanced Crocodylia. Mesozoic Meanderings 2 pp 196
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^ Olshevsky, G., 1991, A Revision of the Parainfraclass Archosauria Cope, 1869, Excluding the Advanced Crocodylia. Mesozoic Meanderings 2 pp 196
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^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Elzanowski, A.; Paul, G.S.; Stidham, T.A. (2001). "An avian quadrate from the Late Cretaceous Lance Formation of Wyoming". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 20 (4): 712–719. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2000)020[0712:aaqftl]2.0.co;2.
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^ Estes, R., 1964, Fossil vertebrates from the Late Cretaceous Lance Formation, eastern Wyoming. University of California Publications in Geological Sciences 49: 1-180
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b "Class Aves," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 7.
^ "Class Aves," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 7. All taxa listed occur in Montana, see page 1.
^ Henderson, Michael; Peterson, Joseph (30 March 2006). "An Azhdarchid Pterosaur Cervical Vertebra from the Hell Creek Formation (Maastrichtian) of Southeastern Montana". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 26 (1): 192–195. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2006)26[192:AAPCVF]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR 4524549. Retrieved 7 November 2020.
^ Averianov, Alexander (11 August 2014). "Review of taxonomy, geographic distribution, and paleoenvironments of Azhdarchidae (Pterosauria)". ZooKeys (432): 1–107. doi:10.3897/zookeys.432.7913. PMC 4141157. PMID 25152671.
^ Longrich, Nicholas; Martill, David; Andres, Brian (13 March 2018). "Late Maastrichtian pterosaurs from North Africa and mass extinction of Pterosauria at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary". PLOS Biology. 16 (3): e2001663. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.2001663. PMC 5849296. PMID 29534059.
^ Longrich, Nicholas; Martill, David; Andres, Brian (11 April 2018). "Correction: Late Maastrichtian pterosaurs from North Africa and mass extinction of Pterosauria at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary". PLOS Biology. 16 (4): e1002627. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1002627. PMC 5894959. PMID 29641516.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Henderson and Peterson (2006) 192–195.
^ "New Hell Creek Pterosaur Species". TrieboldPaleo.Inc.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h R. Matsumoto; S. E. Evans (2010). "Choristoderes and the freshwater assemblages of Laurasia". Journal of Iberian Geology. 36 (2): 253–274. doi:10.5209/rev_jige.2010.v36.n2.11.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h "Order Testudinata," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 5.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d "Order Testudinata," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 5. All taxa listed occur in Montana, see page 1.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Walter G. Joyce; Donald B. Brinkman; Tyler R. Lyson (2019). "A new species of trionychid turtle, Axestemys infernalis sp. nov., from the Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Hell Creek and Lance formations of the Northern Great Plains, USA". Palaeontologia Electronica. 22 (3): Article number 22.3.72. doi:10.26879/949.
^ Arbour, V.M.; Zanno, L.E.; Larson, D.W.; Evans, D.C.; Sues, H. (2015). "The furculae of the dromaeosaurid dinosaur Dakotaraptor steini are trionychid turtle entoplastra". PeerJ PrePrints. 3: e1957.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Georgia E. Knauss; Walter G. Joyce; Tyler R. Lyson; Dean Pearson (2011). "A new kinosternoid from the Late Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation of North Dakota and Montana and the origin of the Dermatemys mawii lineage". Paläontologische Zeitschrift. 85 (2): 124–142. doi:10.1007/s12542-010-0081-x. S2CID 129123961.
^ Tyler R. Lyson; Jacob L. Sayler; Walter G. Joyce (2019). "A new baenid turtle, Saxochelys gilberti, gen. et sp. nov., from the uppermost Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Hell Creek Formation: sexual dimorphism and spatial niche partitioning within the most speciose group of Late Cretaceous turtles". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 39 (4): e1662428. doi:10.1080/02724634.2019.1662428. S2CID 208587902.
^ "Fossils may capture the day the dinosaurs died. Here's what you should know". Science. 2019-03-31. Retrieved 2021-08-20.
^ Van Vranken, Nathan E.; Boyd, Clint A. (2021-08-19). "The first in situ collection of a mosasaurine from the marine Breien Member of the Hell Creek Formation in south-central North Dakota, USA". PaleoBios. 38. doi:10.5070/P938054460 (inactive 2021-09-13). ISSN 0031-0298.CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2021 (link)
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p Nicholas R. Longrich; Bhart-Anjan S. Bhullar; Jacques A. Gauthier (2012). "Mass extinction of lizards and snakes at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (52): 21396–21401. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10921396L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1211526110. PMC 3535637. PMID 23236177.
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^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Gregory P. Wilson (2013). "Mammals across the K/Pg boundary in northeastern Montana, U.S.A.: dental morphology and body-size patterns reveal extinction selectivity and immigrant-fueled ecospace filling". Paleobiology. 39 (3): 429–469. doi:10.1666/12041. S2CID 36025237.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g J. David Archibald; Yue Zhang; Tony Harper; Richard L. Cifelli (2011). "Protungulatum, confirmed Cretaceous occurrence of an otherwise Paleocene eutherian (placental?) mammal". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 18 (3): 153–161. doi:10.1007/s10914-011-9162-1. S2CID 16724836.
^ B. M. Davis. 2007. A revision of “pediomyid” marsupials from the Late Cretaceous of North America. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 52(2):217–256
^ Thomas E. Williamson; Stephen L. Brusatte; Thomas D. Carr; Anne Weil; Barbara R. Standhardt (2012). "The phylogeny and evolution of Cretaceous–Palaeogene metatherians: cladistic analysis and description of new early Palaeocene specimens from the Nacimiento Formation, New Mexico". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 10 (4): 625–651. doi:10.1080/14772019.2011.631592. S2CID 83996185.
^ Richard C. Fox (2015) A revision of the Late Cretaceous–Paleocene eutherian mammal Cimolestes Marsh, 1889. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences (advance online publication) doi: 10.1139/cjes-2015-0113 http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/cjes-2015-0113?src=recsys#.VkAcsrerTcs
^ Chandrasekharam, A., 1974. Megafossil flora from the Genesee locality, Alberta, Canada. Palaeontographica, Abt. A, Band 174
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External links[]

[1] DePalma, Robert; Cichocki, Frederich; Dierick, Manuel; Feeney, Robert (2010). "Preliminary Notes on the First Recorded Amber Insects from the Hell Creek Formation" (PDF). The Journal of Paleontological Sciences. JPS. C. 10: 1–7. Retrieved 16 November 2020.

[2] Nel, André; DePalma, Robert A.; Engel, Michael S. (2010). "A possible hemiphlebiid damselfly in Late Cretaceous amber from South Dakota (Odonata: Zygoptera)". Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science. 113 (3/4): 231–234. doi:10.1660/062.113.0312. JSTOR 41309615. S2CID 84827761.

[3] Messer, A'ndrea Eluse. "Leaf-mining insects destroyed with the dinosaurs, others quickly appeared". Penn State News. Pennsylvania State University. Retrieved 20 August 2014.

[4] "North Dakota site shows wreckage from same object that killed the dinosaurs". UW News. University of Washington. Retrieved 29 March 2019.

[5] Peterson, Douglas. "The Day the Dinosaurs Died". The New Yorker.

[mussel-6] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Graf, Dan; Cummings, Kevin. "The Mussel Project". UWSP Mussel Project. The University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point. Retrieved 7 June 2021.

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[eb1970-amphibians-barb-11] Listed as "cf. Barbourula sp." in "Class Amphibia," Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 4.

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[eb1970-amphibians-montana-13] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ "Class Amphibia," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 4. All taxa listed occur in Montana, see page 1.

[eb1970-amphibians-eopel-14] Listed as "Eopelobates? sp." in "Class Amphibia," Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 4.

[Paranecturus-15] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d David G. Demar Jr. (2013). "A new fossil salamander (Caudata, Proteidae) from the Upper Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Hell Creek Formation, Montana, U.S.A". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 33 (3): 588–598. doi:10.1080/02724634.2013.734887. S2CID 128532897.

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[eb1970-bonyfish-montana-17] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h "Class Osteichthyes," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 3. All taxa listed occur in Montana, see page 1.

[eb1970-bonyfish-4-18] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d "Class Osteichthyes," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 4.

[eb1970-bonyfish-montana-4-19] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c "Class Osteichthyes," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 4. All taxa listed occur in Montana, see page 1.

[eb1970-bonyfish-para-20] Jump up to: ^a ^b Listed as "cf. Paralbula casei" in "Class Osteichthyes," Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 4.

[GSAeuselachians-21] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s Todd D. Cook; Michael G. Newbrey; Donald B. Brinkman; James I. Kirkland (2014). Euselachians from the freshwater deposits of the Hell Creek Formation of Montana. GSA Special Papers. Geological Society of America Special Papers. 503. pp. 229–246. doi:10.1130/2014.2503(08). ISBN 978-0-8137-2503-1.

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[eb1970-cartfish-montana-24] "Class Chondrichthyes," in Estes and Berberian, (1970). Page 3. All taxa listed occur in Montana, see page 1.

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[30] Giffin, Emily B.; Gabriel, Diane L.; Johnson, Rolf E. (22 January 1988). "A New Pachycephalosaurid Hell Creek Formation of Montana". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 7 (4): 398–407. doi:10.1080/02724634.1988.10011672. JSTOR 4523163. Retrieved 13 November 2020.

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[table-21-1-465-33] "Table 21.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 465.

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[48] Rohrer, W. L.; Konizeski, R. (May 1960). "On the Occurrence of Edmontosaurus in the Hell Creek Formation of Montana". 34. SEPM Society for Sedimentary Geology. 34 (3): 464–466. JSTOR 1300943. Retrieved 17 November 2020.

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[cretaceous-distribution-southdakota-thesgarb-52] Noted as being present, although misspelled as "Thescelosaurus garbani, in " "Dinosaur distribution (Late Cretaceous; North America; South Dakota)." Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 586.

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[57] Molnar, R.E. (January 1980). "An Albertosaur from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana". Journal of Paleontology. 54 (1): 102–108. JSTOR 1304167.

[58] Molnar, R. E. (January 1978). "A New Theropod Dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous of Central Montana". Journal of Paleontology. SEPM Society for Sedimentary Geology. 52 (1): 73–82. JSTOR 1303791. Retrieved 13 November 2020.

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Paleobiota of the Hell Creek Formation

Contents

Invertebrates[]

Amphibians[]

Fish[]

Bony fish[]

Cartilaginous fish[]

Dinosaurs[]

Ornithischians[]

Ankylosaurs[]

Pachycephalosaurs[]

Ceratopsians[]

Ornithopods and relatives[]

Theropods[]

Alvarezsaurs[]

Tyrannosaurids[]

Ornithomimosaurs[]

Oviraptorosaurs[]

Eumaniraptorans[]

Pterosaurs[]

Crocodylomorphs[]

Turtles[]

Squamata[]

Choristoderans[]

Mammals[]

Multituberculates[]

Metatherians[]

Eutherians[]

Flora[]

See also[]

References[]

Bibliography[]

External links[]