Political systems of the Ashanti Empire
The political organization of the historical Ashanti Empire in West Africa was not just a tool for public administration. It guaranteed power for the ruling nobility, who repeatedly succeeded in suppressing or preventing absolutist aspirations of rulers or their inner circles. The numerous dethroning in Ashanti history are vivid testimony to this real power of the nobility, which had its legitimation and basis in the system of government.
The government of Ashanti was characterized by stools which denoted "offices" that were associated with a particular authority. The Golden Stool was the most powerful of all, because it was the office of the King of the Ashanti Empire. Scholars such as Jan Vansina have described the governance of the Ashanti Empire as a federation where state affairs were regulated by a council of elders headed by the king, who was simply primus inter pares.[1]
Structure and organization[]
The Asante government consisted of the following main pillars:
- the king (Asantehene)
- the aristocracy
- the queen mother (Asantehemaa or Ohemmaa)
- the Kotoko Council
- the council of elders (Mpanyimfo)
- the Asantemanhyiamu (later: the General Assembly)
In all, the Ashanti state was a centralized state made up of a hierarchy of heads starting from the "Abusua Panyin" who was head of a family or lineage. The family was the basic political unit in the empire. The family or lineage followed the village organization which was headed by the Odikro. All villages were then grouped together to form divisions headed by a divisional head called Ohene. The various divisions were politically grouped to form a state which was headed by an Omanhene or Amanhene. Finally, all Ashanti states formed the Ashanti Empire with the Asantehene as their king.[2]
The Golden Stool[]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-44-5-1-001.jpg/220px-The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-44-5-1-001.jpg)
The Golden Stool was the most powerful of all stools or "offices" in the Ashanti Empire. It was occupied by the Asantehene (King). According to Ashanti oral tradition, the Golden Stool first appeared near the end of the 17th century. It became the spiritual centre of the Empire after King Osei Tutu unified the Ashanti city-states into one empire. According to oral tradition, Okomfo Anokye, the chief priest and adviser of Osei Tutu, brought down the stool from the sky to the earth. He demanded that all chiefs of the Ashanti city-state surrender their stools and recognize the supremacy of the Golden Stool.[3]
Kotoko Council[]
The Kotoko was a government council in the Ashanti government. It was also referred to as the Ashanti porcupine, which implied that “ nobody should dare to touch him ... ”[citation needed]
![Ashanti Empire Emblem.svg](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Ashanti_Empire_Emblem.svg/220px-Ashanti_Empire_Emblem.svg.png)
Politically, the kotoko council served as the counterweight to the king's council of elders and basically embodied the aristocratic party in the government. The council formed the Legislature of Ashanti governmental system.[4] During the reign of Osei Bonsu (1801-1824), the Kotoko Council consisted of the following people:
- the King (Asantehene) The King of the Ashanti Empire was the occupant of the Golden stool. He was elected from the Oyoko clan.
- the Queen Mother (Asantehemaa or Ohemaa)
- the first three chiefs of the Empire
- the Mamponghene: occupant of the Silver stool and as such the Viceroy of Ashanti. He was elected from the Bretuo clan.
- the Juabenhene (also: Dwabinhene)
- the Bekwaihene
- four aristocrats from Kumasi
- the Kumasi Akwamuhene
- the Kumasi Gyaasehene (the Minister of Finance)
- the Adumhene
- the Kontihene (or Krontihene) was the commander-in-chief of the Ashanti military in the absence of the king.
All members of the Kotoko Council were also known as Abrempon. After the introduction of the Adamfo office, all first three chiefs of the Empire were represented by the Adamfo at court.
The chiefs of the Kotoko Council were mostly viceroys or governors of conquered and tributary states belonging to the Ashanti Empire. In the government of Osei Bonsu for instance, the Kumasi Gyaasehene, Opoku Frefre, was the viceroy for tributary states Akim and Akwamu. The Kumasi Akwamuhene, Kwakye Kofi, was responsible for the Denkyira provincial state while the Krontihene and Kumasi Nsafohene, Amankwatia, was responsible for Assin, , Twifo, Sefwi as well as for large parts of the southwest.
Administration of smaller territories was mostly delegated to selected officers. The aforementioned Amankwatia appointed a provincial governor for Assin, for example, who also delegated further, by appointing an Akasse as administrator for the Kyikyiwari district.
Accra was an exception. Since three European nations were present in Accra, provincial administration for Accra was also divided into three parts, with each of the three provincial governors also made responsible for one of the European nations. For example, during the reign of King Bonsu, a man named Akwa Amankwa was responsible for the British and another named Bekwa was in charge of the Danes. The provincial governors also belonged to the king's council of elders (Mpanyimfo).
Mpanyimfo[]
The Mpanyimfo in Ashanti was an assembly of the oldest members of a particular territory, who represented the inhabitants and acted as advisors to the chief in administrative matters.[5]: 77 As a rule, they represented a matrilineally defined lineage. The assembly generally represented the people and the grassroots in government. In the past, influential traders and representatives of the aristocracy could form part of the assembly. Succession was through matrilineal lineage.
Asantemanhyiamu[]
The Asantemanhyiamu was a Union Council also known as the General Assembly of the Caboceers and Captains of the Ashantee Nation. The Asantemanhyiamu was a federal council of the Ashanti Empire which met at least once a year. The king, who was also a councilor, presided over the meetings. The council consisted of the representatives of the individual matrilineal family clans, who were elected and appointed by the Queen Mother and the most powerful chiefs from among several candidates nominated by the lineages. This was seen as a very effective system which largely, if not always, spared the empire from devastating succession disputes.
Executive[]
Asantehene[]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Asantehene_figure%2C_Asante_people%2C_Kingdom_of_Ashanti_-_Naturhistorisches_Museum_N%C3%BCrnberg_-_Nuremberg%2C_Germany_-_DSC03984.jpg/220px-Asantehene_figure%2C_Asante_people%2C_Kingdom_of_Ashanti_-_Naturhistorisches_Museum_N%C3%BCrnberg_-_Nuremberg%2C_Germany_-_DSC03984.jpg)
The Ashanti Empire was made up of a number of states grouped together and headed by a monarch. The Asantehene was regarded as primus inter pares.[6] Thus, he was the highest form of authority in the empire and he held more power than the paramount chiefs known as the Amanhene, who were leaders of Ashanti states such as Mampong, Kokufu, Ejisu, Juaben and Bekwai. But the Asantehene did not enjoy absolute royal rule; several checks curbed any abuse of power. All Ashanti authorities including the Asantehene, pledged allegiance to the Golden stool.[6][7][8] The Asantehene was the chief judge, chief administrator and commander-in-chief of the Ashanti army.[2]
Asanteman council[]
This institution assisted the Asantehene and served as an advisory body to the king. The council was made up of Amanhene or paramount chiefs who were leaders of the various Ashanti states. The council also included other provincial chiefs. By law the Asantehene never ignored the decisions of the Asanteman council. Doing so could get him destooled from the throne.[6][2]
Amanhene[]
The Ashanti Empire was made up of metropolitan and provincial states. The metropolitan states were made up of Ashanti citizens known as amanfo. The provincial states were other kingdoms absorbed into the empire. Every metropolitan Ashanti state was headed by the Amanhene or paramount chief. Each of these paramount chiefs served as principal rulers of their own states, where they exerted executive, legislative and judicial powers.[6]
Ohene[]
The Ohene were divisional chiefs under the Amanhene. Their major function was to advise the Amanhene. The divisional chiefs were the highest order in various Ashanti state divisions. The divisions were made up of various villages put together. Examples of divisional chiefs included Krontihene, Nifahene, Benkumhene, Adontenhene and Kyidomhene.[6]
Odikuro[]
Each village in Asante had a chief called Odikro who was the owner of the village. The Odikro was responsible for the maintenance of law and order. He also served as a medium between the people of his jurisdiction, the ancestor and the gods. As the head of the village, the Odikro presided over the village council.[6][2]
Queen[]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Yaa_Asantewaa_Museum_%284%29.jpg/220px-Yaa_Asantewaa_Museum_%284%29.jpg)
The queen or Ohenemaa was an important figure in Ashanti political systems. She was the most powerful female in the Empire. She had the prerogative of being consulted in the process of installing a chief or the king, as she played a major role in the nomination and selection. She settled disputes involving women and was involved in decision-making alongside the Council of elders and chiefs.[6] Not only did she participate in the judicial and legislative processes, but also in the making and unmaking of war, and the distribution of land.[9]
Osei Kwadwo reforms[]
The offices of government and public administration in Asante were completely reorganized during the reign of Asantehene Osei Kwadwo (r. 1764–1777) in a major administrative reform. He began a meritocratic system of appointing central officials according to their ability, rather than their birth.[10] A group classification emerged in Ashanti politics.[citation needed]
Adehyedwa stools[]
The Adehyedwa stools were offices originally independent of the king, that is, they were either pre-Ashanti stools that had been incorporated into the Ashanti administration system after the establishment of the kingdom, or they were non-Ashanti stools that took over into the Ashanti administrative system due to special fidelity and loyalty. The succession in office was mostly regulated by maternal law with the exception of the Asafo stool in Kumasi. Matriclan succession meant that the successor for the office of an Adehyedwa chair was determined through the election of a noble who was suitable for the office within the maternal consanguinity.[citation needed]
Poduodwa stools[]
The Poduodwa stools were offices created by the king and inherited by a certain lineage. This included the Bantama stool in Kumasi (Bantamahene or Bantahene). Bantama was the location of the mausoleum of the royal family. The bantahene was the chief). Authority over the mausoleum however, was traditionally exercised by the Asante Krontihene (Minister of Defence).[citation needed]
Esomdwa stools (including the Mmammadwa stools)[]
The Esomdwa stools were offices of public administration ("Esom") that do not form part of the Adehyewa and Poduodwa stools. Among them were the Mmammadwa stools whose succession was organized via the “Fekuw” system. The Fekuw system was a kinship relationships that arose from the paternal blood line. However, the king had the right to intervene in the succession and to appoint a successor himself.[citation needed]
All office holders of a stool of the three categories mentioned had to swear allegiance to the king. These “stools” (offices) were subordinate to the highest of all stools, the golden stool, occupied by the Asantehene. They were therefore strictly separated from the group of Abusuadwa stools, which were not subject to the Golden stool.[citation needed]
The chiefs of the regional and supraregional public administration had the Ahenfie which served as the local palace police, at their disposal to exercise the state executive power.[citation needed]
Abusuadwa stools[]
The Abusuadwa stools were all offices within a family clan (defined by the maternal blood line), which did not fulfill any public function and whose function, occupation and succession are solely the matter of their respective matrilineal Abusua.[citation needed] An example is the Oyokohene, head of the Oyoko clan.
With the Kwadwo's administrative reform, among other things, the Asokwafo, previously a troop of royal hornblowers, was transformed into a kind of "personnel pool" for the education and training of future government officials. The king then recruited his officials from the Asokwafo community for a wide variety of administrative tasks. The head of the Asokwafo was the Batahene, who was also responsible for the management of the state trade organizations in Ashanti. The post of Okyeame (spokesman for the king), newly created under Kwadwo, was for example, filled with people from the Asokwafo circle. Likewise, the liaison men to the Europeans during Osai Bonsu's reign had previously been members of the Asokwafo.[citation needed]
Office of the Gyaasehene[]
The Gyaasehene (formerly: Gyaasewahene) was the head of the national treasurer's office at the court of the King of Asante.[11][12] He was responsible for the implementation of a general financial budget and expenditure control of the Ashanti Empire and he also presided over the tax court. The office occupied by the Gyaasehene was also called the Pinanko stool, a term that was used parallel to "Gyaasewa" as a stool designation. Subordinate to him were the Sanaahene, who was responsible for the routine administration of the "Great Chest" (treasury), that is, through which all payments with gold dust from the royal treasury were processed. Subordinate to the Sanaahene (and thus also to the Gyaasehene) was the Fotosanahene, who was head of the cashiers and weighers. The office of the Fotosanahene was also called the Nimbi stool.[13]
The Gyaase (wa) hene (Kumasi Gyaasehene) also had a seat on the Asante Kotoko Council. Since all members of the Kotoko Council were also viceroys or governors for areas outside Asante with a degree of sovereignty, the Gyaasehene also had such an office. For example, Opoku Frefre was also viceroy for Akwamu and Akim at the time of Asantehene Osei Bonsu (ruled 1801–1824).[citation needed]
The office of Gyaasehene existed in Ashanti long before Osei's reforms, but the office was exempted from maternal succession in the Kwadwo's administrative reform and was mainly given administrative tasks. This made the office equal to that of "finance ministers".[citation needed]
Office of the Krontihene[]
Among the Akan of the Gold Coast, Krontihene (or Kontihene) is the title of "leader of the warriors", who was sometimes also referred to as Sahene (war leader). He embodied the Minister of War of the Ashanti Empire and the Commander-in-Chief of the Ashanti Army in the absence of the King.[14] In the past, the Asante Krontihene was also the Bantamahene among the Ashanti.[citation needed]
The Kronti- or Krontihene belonged to the Nsafohene. He was also the Adamfo of Mamponghene at the court of Asantehene. Through King Kwadwo's administrative reform, the Krontihene was elected through the Ekuona clan lineage. This made it unlikely that a Krontihene would ever attempt to usurp the Ashanti throne. As a result, the Kontihene had a certain level of trust with the power superiors in Asante and was therefore often used in positions in which he had a great deal of power. The office was indisputably one of the most powerful in historical Ashanti.[citation needed]
Office of the Okyeame (Linguist)[]
In contrast to the kingdom of Fetu or Akyim, where the office of the Okyeame was described in historical literature with the term "chancellor" or "royal doorkeeper", the post of the Okyeame in Ashanti was mainly to serve as "spokesman for the king". This function was created through King Kwadwo's administrative reforms. Since there was not only one royal speaker in historical Asante, the office of the "Boakye Yam Panyindwa" stool ("stool of Boakye Yam, the Elder") also existed as the "chief speaker" of the king. This office is named after the venerable Boakye Yam, who was the first to exercise this office after Kwadwo's administrative reform. The posts of the speakers are comparable to the "diplomatic service" of the Ashanti state and therefore require a high qualification of their office holders, which related to both foreign and provincial matters. It was primarily they who (along with personal relatives of the king) were repeatedly sent out as liaison officers for the Asantehene on diplomatic missions. The succession to the “Boakye Yam Panyindwa” chair was also organized through the “Fekuw” system, that is, the office was inherited within the paternal bloodline.[citation needed]
Bureaucracy[]
The government of the Ashanti Empire was built upon a sophisticated bureaucracy in Kumasi, with separate ministries which saw to the handling of state affairs. Ashanti's Foreign Office was based in Kumasi. Despite the small size of the office, it allowed the state to pursue complex negotiations with foreign powers. The office was divided into departments that handled Ashanti relations separately with the British, French, Dutch, and Arabs. Scholars of Ashanti history, such as Larry Yarak and Ivor Wilkes, disagree over the power of this sophisticated bureaucracy in comparison to the Asantehene. However, both scholars agree that it was a sign of a highly developed government with a complex system of checks and balances.[15]
Wilks states that the empire was bureaucratic as early as the 18th century due to reforms by the Ashanti kings. The Ashanti king appointed officers based on merit and assigned specific duties in the administration. All chiefs had the authority to appoint and dismiss staff. They also had the power to create a new office or abolish old ones.[16]
Elections and Impeachment[]
Elections[]
During the period between the death of an Asantehene and the election of a successor, the Mamponghene, the Asantehene's deputy, acted as a regent.[10] This policy was only changed during a time of civil war in the late 19th century, when the Kwasafomanhyiamu or governing council itself ruled as regent.[10] The succession was decided by a series of councils of Asante nobles and other royal family members.[10] The methods of electing a chief varied from one chiefdom to another. For the election of the Asantehene, the Queen mother nominated eligible males as candidates from a royal lineage. She then consulted the elders of that lineage. The final candidate is then selected. The nomination was sent to a council of elders or kingmakers, who represent other Ashanti states.[17] The Elders then presented the nomination to the assembled people. The assembled citizens or commoners were represented by the Nkwankwaahene who indicated if there was widespread approval or disapproval of the nominee. If the citizens disapproved of the nominee, the process was restarted. If Chosen, the new King was enstooled by the kingmakers.[18][15]
Impeachment[]
Kings of the Ashanti Empire who violated any of the oaths taken during his or her enstoolment, were destooled by Kingmakers.[19] For instance, if a king punished citizens arbitrarily or was exposed as corrupt, he would be destooled. Destoolment entailed kingmakers removing the sandals of the king and bumping his buttocks on the ground three times. Once destooled from office, his sanctity and thus reverence were lost, as he could not exercise any of the powers he had as king; this includes Chief administrator, Judge, and Military Commander. The now previous king was dispossessed of the Stool, swords and other regalia which symbolized his office and authority. He also lost his position as custodian of the land. However, even if destooled from office, the king remained a member of the royal family from which he was elected.[19] One impeachment occurred during the reign of Kusi Obodom, caused by a failed invasion of Dahomey.[20]
See also[]
References[]
- ^ Vansina (1963), p. 324-325.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Seth Kordzo Gadzekpo (2005). History of Ghana: Since Pre-history. Excellent Pub. and Print. pp. 91–92. ISBN 9988070810. Retrieved 2020-12-27 – via Books.google.com.
- ^ P. H. Coetzee (1998). The African Philosophy Reader. P. H. Coetzee. p. 405. ISBN 9780415189057.
- ^ Edgerton, Robert B. Fall of the Asante Empire: The Hundred Year War for Africa's Gold Coast. Free Press, 1995.
- ^ Rattray, Robert Sutherland (1929). Ashanti Law and Constitution (PDF). Oxford, Oxfordshire: Clarendon Press. OCLC 921009966. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 March 2021.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Prince A. Kuffour (2015). Concise Notes on African and Ghanaian History. K4 Series Investment Ventures. pp. 205–206. ISBN 9789988159306. Retrieved 2020-12-16 – via Books.google.com.
- ^ Tordoff, William (November 1962). "The Ashanti Confederacy1". The Journal of African History. 3 (3): 399–417. doi:10.1017/S0021853700003327. ISSN 1469-5138.
- ^ Aidoo, Agnes A. (1977). "Order and Conflict in the Asante Empire: A Study in Interest Group Relations". African Studies Review. 20 (1): 1–36. doi:10.2307/523860. ISSN 0002-0206. JSTOR 523860.
- ^ Arhin, Kwame, "The Political and Military Roles of Akan Women", in Christine Oppong (ed.), Female and Male in West Africa, London: Allen and Unwin, 1983.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Shillington, History of Africa, p. 195.
- ^ Fage, J.D. and Roland Oliver (1975). The Cambridge History of Africa: From c. 1600 to c. 1790, edited by Richard Gray. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 317. ISBN 0521204135.
- ^ Frank K. Adams (2010), p. 18
- ^ Ivor Wilks (1966), 215–232
- ^ Frank K. Adams (2010), p. 14
- ^ Jump up to: a b Chioma, Unini (2020-03-15). "Historical Reminisciences: Great Empires Of Yore (Part 15) By Mike Ozekhome, SAN". TheNigeriaLawyer. Retrieved 2020-05-30.
- ^ Frank K. Adams (2010), pp. 13–14
- ^ Timo Kallinen (2018). Divine Rulers in a Secular State. BoD - Books on Demand. pp. 32–33. ISBN 978-9522226822. Retrieved 2020-12-27 – via Books.google.com.
- ^ Apter David E. (2015). Ghana in Transition. Princeton University Press. p. 112. ISBN 9781400867028.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Obeng, J.Pashington (1996). Asante Catholicism; Religious and Cultural Reproduction among the Akan of Ghana. 1. ISBN 978-90-04-10631-4.
- ^ Pescheux, page 449
Bibliography[]
- Vansina, J. "A Comparison of African Kingdoms", Africa: Journal of the International African Institute (1962), pp. 324–335.
- Emmanuel Akyeampong, Pashington Obeng: Spirituality, Gender, and Power in Asante History. In: The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 28 (3), 1995, S. 481–508.
- Ivor Wilks: Aspects of Bureaucratization in Ashanti in the nineteenth century. In: Journal of African History. 7 (2), 1966, S. 215–232.
- Margaret Priestley: The Ashanti question and the British: eighteenth-century origins. In: Journal of African History. 2 (1), 1961, S. 35–59.
- William Tordoff: The Ashanti Confederacy. In: Journal of African History. 3 (3), 1962, S. 399–417.
- John K. Fynn: The reign and times of Kusi Obodum 1750-64. In: Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana. 8, 1965, S. 24–32.
- Kevin Shillington, 1995 (1989), History of Africa, New York: St. Martin's Press.
- Frank K. Adams (2010). Odwira and the Gospel: A Study of the Asante Odwira Festival and Its Significance for Christainity in Ghana. OCMS. ISBN 9781870345590.
- Pescheux, Gérard (2003). Le royaume asante (Ghana): parenté, pouvoir, histoire, XVIIe-XXe siècles. Paris: KARTHALA Editions. p. 582. ISBN 2-84586-422-1.
- Political history of Ghana
- Ashanti Empire
- Political systems