Sahle Sellassie Berhane Mariam

Sahle Sellassie Berhane Mariam (Amharic: ሳህለ ሰልላስሴ በርሃነ ማርአም; born 1936) is an Ethiopian novelist and translator. He has published works in Amharic, English and Chaha.

He wrote the first novel ever in Chaha, became the first Ethiopian to be published in the Heinemann African Writers Series, and translated works by Charles Dickens, Victor Hugo, Pearl S. Buck and others into Amharic.

Biography[]

Early years and education[]

Sahle Sellassie Berhane Mariam was born Sahle Ananka (ሳህለ ኣናንቃ) in the village he described in his first novel, Shinega's Village. He attended a Catholic Mission school in Endibir before the school's founder, Abba Francois, arranged for him to transfer to Teferi Mekonnen School in Addis Ababa.^[1][2] It was on moving to Addis Ababa that he changed his name to Sahle Sellassie Berhane Mariam. His father died while he was in tenth grade and he contemplated leaving school to care for his family, as he was the oldest son.

He received a BA from University College Addis Ababa in 1959, but was denied a scholarship to study political science abroad by the Vice Minister for Education. He was then able to secure a fellowship to study law at Aix-en-Provence. It was while he was in France that an attempted coup was launched against Haile Selassie. Writing in his memoir Sahle Sellassie recalls:

አንድ የምዕራብ ኣፍሪቃ ተማሪ (ከፈረንሳይ ቅኝ ግዛቶች ከኣንዱ የመጣ) ‘በአገርህኮ ኩ ዴታ ተካሂደዋል፡፡ ንጉሣችሁ ወደ ላቲን ኣሜሪካ ለጉብኝት በሔዱበት ወቅት ወታደሮች ኣምጸው መፈንቅለ መንግስት አካሒደዋል’ ሲለኝ ደንዝዤ ቀሮሁ፡፡ከድንዛዜዬ ስንቃ ሔድ ብዬ ኣንድ የፈረንሳይ የዕለት ጋዜጣ (ለ ሞነድ ይመስለኛል) ገዛሁ፡፡ በእርግጥም መፈንቕለ መንግስት መካሄዱን ያወሳል፡፡ እንዲያውም በስዊድን የኢትዮጵያ ኣማባሳደር የነበሩት ኣቶ ተፈሪ ሻረው መፈንቕለ መንግስቱን በመደገፍ ጽዋቸውን ኣንስተው የተነሱት ፎቶግራፍ እዚያ ላይ ኣለ፤ ያውም እስከነሚያማምሩ ሴት ልጆቻቸው ጋር፡፡ የኢትዮጵያ ተማሪዎች በኤክስ አን ፐሮቫንስ ያለነው ብቻ ሳንሆን በግሮኖብል፤ በፓሪስ፤ እና በሌሎችም ፈረንሳይ ከተሞች ያሉት ጭምር ወዲያውኑ በስልክም በደብዳቤም መፈላለግ ጀመርን፡፡ የብዙዎቻችን ፍላጎት ከኣቶ ተፈሪ ሻረው ጋር ግኑኝነት ፈጥረን ለመፈንቕለ መንግስቱ የድጋፍ መልእክት ለመላክ ነበር፡፡ [I was surprised when a student from one of the francophone countries in Western Africa told me that there was coup in my country. He said the coup had taken place by the military force when the Emperor was on his visit to Latin America. Then I bought a French newspaper and confirmed there was a coup. In the newspaper there was a photo of an Ethiopian Ambassador to Sweden, Ato Teferi Sharew, together with his two beautiful daughters supporting the coup. Soon we, Ethiopian students, in Aix-en-Provence, Grenoble, Paris and other French cities began to communicate with letters and phone to express our solidarity to the coup.]^[3]

Despite his stay in France, his interest lay in political science and Wolf Leslau obtained permission for him to transfer to University of California, Los Angeles, where he received his MA in 1963. The two had become acquainted when Sahle Sellassie provided Chaha texts for Leslau's book Ethiopia Speaks: Studies in Cultural Background. Leslau then commissioned him to write a novel in Chaha during a summer fellowship.^[2][4] On his return to Ethiopia the government did not recognise his MA and offered him only the salary of someone with a BA. As a result he obtained a job at the Wonji Suger Company, near Adama, with a higher salary.^[2] It is clear from his memoir that he felt a level of discrimination due to his background:

ከኛ በፊት በውጭ አገር ትምህርታቸውን ጨርሰው የሚመጡ የኢትዮጵያ ተማሪዎች እንደ ኣገሪቱ ብርቅዬ ልጆች ስለሚቀጠሩ (በተለይ የመሳፍንትና የመ£ንንትና ልጆች ከሆኑ) ገና ወደ ኢትዮጵያ ከመደረሳቸው በፊት በየሚኒስቴር መሥርያቤቶች የሥራ ቦታ ይያዝላቸዋል፡፡ [Students who studied abroad were considered unique and jobs in higher government offices were reserved for them - particularly for those who are from noble families - before they arrive back in Ethiopia.]^[3]

Shinega's Village (1964)[]

Shinega's Village, the result of his collaboration with Leslau, became the first novel to be written in Chaha using a modified form of the Amharic script with special characters.^[5] As planned, it was then translated into English by Leslau and published by the University of California Press.^[6][7] An extract was also published in the book, Growing up Africa.^[8] It is unclear whether Sahle Sellassie intended for it to be published at all.^[2]

The novel is a series of related scenes, depicting the life of a village boy from his birth in the 1940s to the birth of his first child in the 1960s. Modernity creeps into his life as he first desires to own a pair of khaki shorts, before taking a trip to the nearest market town that has a benzene station, and finally all the way to Addis Ababa. In doing so it explores the life of a rural Gurage community and the increasing influence of urban Ethiopian life and, to a lesser extent, European technology. For some the pull is enticing, while for others it is a place to resent.^[5][6][7][9]

The book received positive reviews within academic circles where it was largely considered an anthropological text, albeit one that was seen as a pleasure to read.^[9]

ወጣት ይፍረደው (1967)[]

Sahle Sellassie's first Amharic novel, ወጣት ይፍረደው, or Let Youth Judge It, deals with love and marriage. It was censored by the government, which limited its popularity.^[2]

The plot centres on two friends, Ashe and Seyoum, who fall in love with Ayne-regrb and Felekech respectively. Asha and Ayne-regrb's relationship is frustrated by her bodyguard, who jealously tries to keep her away from him. In the end the bodyguard rapes her and she conceives. Ayne-regrb is unable to face Ashe and in an effort to avoid shaming her family she consents to marrying an elderly man. Before the wedding can take place she vanishes, leaving Ashe distraught. Meanwhile, Seyoum cannot settle with Felekech as she works as a prostitute and his parents disapprove. Instead, they intend to marry him to a more respectable woman. Tessema, a friend of Seyoum's father, wants to marry Felekech himself. Tessema threatens her and she runs away to Debre Zeit. Seyoum follows and they get married and later have a child. They then return to his parents who ultimately given them their blessing.^[10]

In reviewing the novel as part of his MA, Debebe Seifu concludes that Sahle Sellassie's writing lacks artistry and is overly sentimental.^[10]

The Afersata (1969)[]

Sahle Sellassie turned to English for next next novel, partly in an attempt to avoid government censorship, and submitted the manuscript for The Afersata to Heinemann for inclusion in their African Writers Series.^[2] While it was seen to lack drama, the publisher sensed an opportunity to get it used in Ethiopian schools. However, concerns were once gained raised about potential censorship from the government of Haile Selassie, although it was agreed that an international readership could nonetheless be gained, even if the novel could not be easily read in the author's own country.^[11] In a letter to James Currey at Heinemann, Sahle Sellassie wrote, "I hear that there was quite a fuss about the book in the censorship department here, that is whether it should be banned from Ethiopia or not. The final verdict is, however, quite satisfactory. Bookshop owners are allowed to import it."^[11]

The title refers to a traditional method of criminal investigation and prosecution whereby the injured party calls a community meeting to launch an inquiry. At the meeting, everyone present declares the name of the suspected guilty party to a panel of elders.^[12] The novel begins with the burning of Namaga's hut and the subsequent search for the culprit through several meetings of the afersata. A number of subplots, including a Meskel celebration, are included. Ultimately, the afersata decide nothing and the arsonist is never found.^[6][10]

Beer contends that the author's main aim with the novel is to portray communal and self-sufficient rural life, in contrast to faraway towns, which is summed up by the elders leading the afersata: "Fellow villagers, we are all responsible for the burning of Namaga's hut, and we are all condemned collectively to compensate him for his loss, because we have failed to find out the criminal."^[6]

Warrior King (1974)[]

The manuscript for Warrior King was once again submitted to Heinemann. In responding to criticisms from early readers, Sahle Sellassie wrote on 21 July 1973:

"As yourself and the other readers have clearly pointed out it is a story told in a simple, straightforward manner, the story of a man who starts life from the dust and raises himself to the status of emperor. My intention was to show that a man is what he makes of himself. It is not true that men are made rulers over others by God. They make themselves so. And then I had some other intentions in writing the book. I read all the books on Theodorus available to me, over fifteen of them including 'Chronicles of King Theodore' Amharic ed. I went to Gondor city and stayed there several days visiting historical spots, looking for vestiges of the emperor, and inquiring people about him. But obviously it is not a history book - it is a novel based on history."^[11]

Sahle Sellassie wrote again to his publishers on 1 December 1974 to report that an order of 1,000 copies of Warrior King had arrived in the county. The publication was announced by a three-line comment in a classified advert in the Ethiopian Herald, which Beer notes was: "sadly typical of the sparse attention most Ethiopian writers command inside and outside their country whether they write in English or in Amharic."^[6]

It is an historical novel based on the early life of Emperor Tewodros, from his origins as a commoner to his ascension to the throne following the defat of Ras Ali.^[6][10] This is a common theme, with the emperor appearing in a number of novels and plays. In an interview with Taye Assefa in March 1980, Sahle Sellassie explained why Tewodros drew his attention as a literary subject: "Tewodros is more amenable to creative writers because of the dramatic nature of both his actions and his personality."^[13]

The novel was received poorly, as it was seen to rely too heavily on historical documentation and a lack of dialogue.^[6] Arnold goes as far to say: "If literature is writing that transcends the literal, then Warrior King, Sahle Sellassie's fourth novel, barely lifts of history's runway...Perhaps Sellassie intended it as a parable, ostensibly about the past, but actually about the present, legitimizing and glorifying rebellion, showing that people's war against oppressors can be won in spite of massive odds against them."^[14]

It is unclear whether the author intended Warrior King as a reflection of the revolution unfolding in Ethiopia in 1974, but it was clear he was working on such a novel when he wrote to Heinemann on 1 December of that year:

"I am still working on The Convict of Kerchelay...It is set against the background of events in Ethiopia between June and September 1974, i.e. the second phase of the Ethiopian peaceful revolution. However the events serve me only as a background to the story. I am concentrating more on the ploy and the characterisation. I believe I have created one of the great villains of African literature to date in the person of Ato Kebret. The protagonist is called Bezuneh, a young man who falls victim of a vicious official, But I will send you a more detailed account of the story when I will have completed the book...Things have certainly become easier for Ethiopian writers to write and publish books, since last February. And there is great interest to read among the general public. But there is no law abolishing censorship. Of late, however, people are becoming more cautious once again because of the turn of events. The sudden execution of sixty detained officials made many people wonder what was to happen next"^[11]

Firebrands (1979)[]

Sahle Sellassie's manuscript from 1974 was ultimately published by Longman in their Drumbeat series, having been turned down by Heinemann even after the author had responded to criticisms from readers.^[11] It was banned in Ethiopia.^[2]

The novel's main protagonist is Bezuneh, a recent college graduate. He, his brother Worku and their friend Takori are the 'firebrands' seeking change in their country, although Bezuneh is more cautious than the others. He begins work as an auditor at a local company "...with a clean mind and a clean heart to fight...corruption in government office and public corporations". However, he is soon offered a bribe from a wealthy local car dealer and a foreigner, Mr Richardson. Bezuneh turns down the bride, but then learns that Mr Richardson and his manager, His Excellency Ato Kebret, are friends. He clashes with his manager and ultimately losses his job. Bezuneh that plans to kill Ato Kebret, but is caught and sent to jail.^[3][10][15]

The conflict of political ideologies and the threat of corruption are the clear themes of the novel, with Debebe noting: "It is, indeed, a vast and multi-faceted theme that requires a writer of Tolstoy's stature to deal with it with some depth and magnitude . Nevertheless, Sahle Selassie limiting himself only to some of its aspects like bureaucratic mismanagement attempts to portray situations on the eve and early days of the ' 74 revolution."^[10]

ባሻ ቅጣው (1984)[]

Following the historical fiction of Warrior King, Sahle Sellassie then turned his attention to the Italian occupation of Ethiopia. ባሻ ቅጣው, or 'Punish Him', was originally written in English before being translated into Amharic. As with his earlier efforts, Sahle Sellassie once again found himself being censored by the government, which only agreed to publication after a series of changes were made.^[2]

Use of English[]

Sahle Sellassie has translated five novels into Amharic, including Charles Dicken's A Tale of Two Cities, Victor Hugo's Les Misérables, and Pearl S. Buck's The Mother. His own use of English has been discussed a number of times, with his very first novel, Shinega's Village, being described as a compromise in the debate on whether authors should write in an African language or a European language.^[6]

Fekede interviewed the author on the subject, who responded: "English is the only medium I intend to use for many more days to come. When the need arises, I may translate some of my English works into Amharic."^[16]

Yekatit 5(2)

A series of articles appeared in the Ethiopia magazine Yekatit between June 1981 and June 1983 that opened up this debate between Sahle Sellassie, Asfaw Damte, and Mengistu Lemma. The debate began with the publication of the first two instalments of Asfaw's 'Modern Amharic Literature' series, which was intended to run to four essays. After the second essay, Sahle Sellassie published a strongly worded response, which led to further debate between the two. This was only concluded after Mengistu Lemma intervened.

Asfaw argues that African literature is any literature written in an African language, implying that there can be no Ethiopian literature in English or any other foreign language. He views the small number of works in English by Ethiopia writers as insignificant, with the exception of those by Tsegaye Gabre-Medhin, Daniachew Worku and Sahle Sellassie.

Sahle Sellassie's brief response seeks to correct Asfaw, stating that works created by Ethiopians in other languages are indeed a part of Ethiopian literature, but not part of Amharic literature. He follows this with an essay of his own called 'Identification of national literature', stating: "The mere collection of all the creative works existing in all Ethiopian languages cannot constitute 'Ethiopian literature' any more than the mere collection of oranges, bananas, and lemons into one basket could constitute a new kind of fruit". In a later essay he goes on to write, "One does not necessarily write well because one uses one's mother tongue as a medium of expression; one does not necessarily sound quaint or spoil somebody else's language because one uses a foreign tongue as a medium of expression. What makes a piece of writing good or bad is primarily the quality of the mind of the writer". Mengistu draws this debate to a close with a compromise, stating that African literature is what we get when Africans write for other Africans. Language choice is secondary and writers should be free to experiment.^[17]

These exchanges can be seen to form part of a much wider debate about language use, which included Chinua Achebe, Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o and others.

Bibliography^[10][17][18][]

Novels[]

• Shinega's Village: Scenes of Ethiopian life. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1964.
• ወጣት ይፍረደው [ Let Youth Judge It], Addis Ababa: Central Printing Press, 1967.
• The Afersata. London: Heinemann, 1969 (African Writers Series No. 52).
• Warrior King. London: Heinemann, 1974 (African Writers Series No. 163).
• Firebrands. London: Longman Drumbeat, 1979.
• ባሻ ቅጣው [Punish Him], Addis Ababa: Ethiopia Book Centre, 1983.

In translation[]

• የሁለት ከተማዎች ታሪክ [A Tale of Two Cities], 1983.
• Immiyyu [The Mother] 1987.
• የኢየሱስ ሕይወት [Life of Jesus].
• መከረኞች [Les Misérables], 1983.

Memoir

• ፍኖተ ሕይወት [A Journey of Life]. Boston: Daraku, 2018.

Short stories[]

• 'Yaya Massero', Menen: 12, (9 August 1968): 2 -23. A young house-seeker's experience with a broker in a small town.
• 'The Woman of Azer', Zuka (3 April 1969): 37-38. The fiery relationship of a strong-willed woman with her husband and village.

Non-fiction[]

• 'Review of Feqer Eska Magaber', Weyeyet 2: 83-92.
• 'The Novels of Daniachew Worku', The Ethiopian Herald (27 October 1974).
• ''Yegan Mebrať, critics of African literature ignore us completely'', The Ethiopian Herald (20 October 1974).
• 'Identification of national literature', Yekatit 5(2): 19.
• 'Talking of language and literature', Yekatit 6(1): 19-21.

• 'From my sketch-book', Yekatit, 5(4): 21-22; 6(1): 25; 6(2): 19-20; 6(3): 21-22; 6(4): 18-19.

Books[]

• Shinega's Village: Scenes of Ethiopian Life, University of California Press (1964)
• The Afersata, Heinemann Educational Books, African Writers Series No. 52 (1969), ISBN 0-435-90052-8
• Warrior King, Heinemann Educational, African Writers Series No. 163 (1974), ISBN 0-435-90163-X - fiction based on the life of Theodore II
• Firebrands, Longman Drumbeat (1979), ISBN 0-582-64243-4
• "Wetat Yifredew"(ወጣት ይፍረደው)(1967
• "Basha Qtaw"(ባሻ ቅጣው)(1984)
• "shukita"(ሹክታ)(2000)

Sources and references[]

Further reading[]

Fekade Azeze. The novels of Sahle Sellassie (MA). University of Sheffield, 1979.

Taddesse Adera. "Ideology in B.M. Sahle Sellassie's Firebrands". In Taddesse Adera and Ali Jimale Ahmed (eds.). Silence is not Golden. A Critical Anthology of Ethiopian Literature. Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press, 1995.

Dyson, Mary. "Silent Clamour." Addis Reporter, I, 17 (1969), 19-20. Review of Sahle Sellassie's novel The Afersata.

Prouty, William. "Three Reviews." Something, 4 (1965), 53-59. Review of Sahle Sellassie's Shinega's Village. Molvaer, Reidulf (1997). Black Lions: The Creative Lives of Modern Ethiopia's Literary Giants and Pioneers. Red Sea Press.