Saturated fat

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acid chains have all single bonds. A fat known as a glyceride is made of two kinds of smaller molecules: a short glycerol backbone and fatty acids that each contain a long linear or branched chain of carbon (C) atoms. Along the chain, some carbon atoms are linked by single bonds (-C-C-) and others are linked by double bonds (-C=C-).[1] A double bond along the carbon chain can react with a pair of hydrogen atoms to change into a single -C-C- bond, with each H atom now bonded to one of the two C atoms. Glyceride fats without any carbon chain double bonds are called saturated because they are "saturated with" hydrogen atoms, having no double bonds available to react with more hydrogen.

Saturated fats tend to have higher melting points than their corresponding unsaturated fats, leading to the popular understanding that saturated fats tend to be solids at room temperatures, while unsaturated fats tend to be liquid at room temperature with varying degrees of viscosity.[citation needed]

Most animal fats are saturated. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated.[1] Various foods contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fat. Many processed foods like foods deep-fried in hydrogenated oil and sausage are high in saturated fat content. Some store-bought baked goods are as well, especially those containing partially hydrogenated oils.[2][3][4] Other examples of foods containing a high proportion of saturated fat and dietary cholesterol include animal fat products such as lard or schmaltz, fatty meats and dairy products made with whole or reduced fat milk like yogurt, ice cream, cheese and butter.[5] Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil and palm kernel oil.[6]

Guidelines released by many medical organizations, including the World Health Organization, have advocated for reduction in the intake of saturated fat to promote health and reduce the risk from cardiovascular diseases. Many review articles also recommend a diet low in saturated fat and argue it will lower risks of cardiovascular diseases,[7] diabetes, or death.[8]

Fat profiles[]

While nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among food groups. Lauric and myristic acids are most commonly found in "tropical" oils (e.g., palm kernel, coconut) and dairy products. The saturated fat in meat, eggs, cacao, and nuts is primarily the triglycerides of palmitic and stearic acids.

Saturated fat profile of common foods; Esterified fatty acids as percentage of total fat[9]
Food Lauric acid Myristic acid Palmitic acid Stearic acid
Coconut oil 47% 18% 9% 3%
Palm kernel oil 48% 1% 44% 5%
Butter 3% 11% 29% 13%
Ground beef 0% 4% 26% 15%
Salmon 0% 1% 29% 3%
Egg yolks 0% 0.3% 27% 10%
Cashews 2% 1% 10% 7%
Soybean oil 0% 0% 11% 4%
Cocoa butter[10] 1% 0–4% 24.5–33.7% 33.7–40.2%

Examples of saturated fatty acids[]

Some common examples of fatty acids:

Fat composition in foods.png
Food Saturated Mono-
unsaturated
Poly-
unsaturated
As weight percent (%) of total fat
Cooking oils
Algal oil[11] 04 92 04
Canola[12] 08 64 28
Coconut oil 87 13 00
Corn oil 13 24 59
Cottonseed oil[12] 27 19 54
Olive oil[13] 14 73 11
Palm kernel oil[12] 86 12 02
Palm oil[12] 51 39 10
Peanut oil[14] 17 46 32
Rice bran oil 25 38 37
Safflower oil, high oleic[15] 06 75 14
Safflower oil, linoleic[12][16] 06 14 75
Soybean oil 15 24 58
Sunflower oil[17] 11 20 69
Mustard oil 11 59 21
Dairy products
Butterfat[12] 66 30 04
Cheese, regular 64 29 03
Cheese, light 60 30 00
Ice cream, gourmet 62 29 04
Ice cream, light 62 29 04
Milk, whole 62 28 04
Milk, 2% 62 30 00
*Whipping cream[18] 66 26 05
Meats
Beef 33 38 05
Ground sirloin 38 44 04
Pork chop 35 44 08
Ham 35 49 16
Chicken breast 29 34 21
Chicken 34 23 30
Turkey breast 30 20 30
Turkey drumstick 32 22 30
Fish, orange roughy 23 15 46
Salmon 28 33 28
Hot dog, beef 42 48 05
Hot dog, turkey 28 40 22
Burger, fast food 36 44 06
Cheeseburger, fast food 43 40 07
Breaded chicken sandwich 20 39 32
Grilled chicken sandwich 26 42 20
Sausage, Polish 37 46 11
Sausage, turkey 28 40 22
Pizza, sausage 41 32 20
Pizza, cheese 60 28 05
Nuts
Almonds dry roasted 09 65 21
Cashews dry roasted 20 59 17
Macadamia dry roasted 15 79 02
Peanut dry roasted 14 50 31
Pecans dry roasted 08 62 25
Flaxseeds, ground 08 23 65
Sesame seeds 14 38 44
Soybeans 14 22 57
Sunflower seeds 11 19 66
Walnuts dry roasted 09 23 63
Sweets and baked goods
Candy, chocolate bar 59 33 03
Candy, fruit chews 14 44 38
Cookie, oatmeal raisin 22 47 27
Cookie, chocolate chip 35 42 18
Cake, yellow 60 25 10
Pastry, Danish 50 31 14
Fats added during cooking or at the table
Butter, stick 63 29 03
Butter, whipped 62 29 04
Margarine, stick 18 39 39
Margarine, tub 16 33 49
Margarine, light tub 19 46 33
Lard 39 45 11
Shortening 25 45 26
Chicken fat 30 45 21
Beef fat 41 43 03
Goose fat[19] 33 55 11
Dressing, blue cheese 16 54 25
Dressing, light Italian 14 24 58
Other
Egg yolk fat[20] 36 44 16
Avocado[21] 16 71 13
Unless else specified in boxes, then reference is:[22]
* 3% is trans fats

Association with diseases[]

Cardiovascular disease[]

The effect of saturated fat on heart disease has been extensively studied.[23] There are strong, consistent, and graded relationships between saturated fat intake, blood cholesterol levels, and cardiovascular disease.[8] The relationships are accepted as causal.[8][24][25]

Many health authorities, such as the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics,[26] the British Dietetic Association,[27] American Heart Association,[8] the World Heart Federation,[28] the British National Health Service,[29] among others,[30][31] advise that saturated fat is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. In 2020, the World Health Organization recommended lowering dietary intake of saturated fats to less than 10% of total energy consumption, and increasing intake of unsaturated fats.[32] There is moderate-quality evidence that reducing the proportion of saturated fat in the diet, and replacing it with unsaturated fats or carbohydrates over a period of at least two years, leads to a reduction in the risk of cardiovascular disease.[23] A 2021 review found that diets high in saturated fat were associated with higher mortality from all-causes and cardiovascular disease.[33]

Dyslipidemia[]

The consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia, which in turn is a risk factor for some types of cardiovascular disease.[34][35][36][37][38]

Abnormal blood lipid levels, that is high total cholesterol, high levels of triglycerides, high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL, "bad" cholesterol) or low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL, "good" cholesterol) cholesterol are all associated with increased risk of heart disease and stroke.[28]

Meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels.[8][39] High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.[40][41] However, other indicators measuring cholesterol such as high total/HDL cholesterol ratio are more predictive than total serum cholesterol.[41] In a study of myocardial infarction in 52 countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 (related to LDL and HDL, respectively) ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors.[42] There are other pathways involving obesity, triglyceride levels, insulin sensitivity, endothelial function, and thrombogenicity, among others, that play a role in CVD, although it seems, in the absence of an adverse blood lipid profile, the other known risk factors have only a weak atherogenic effect.[43] Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels.[44]

Cancer[]

Breast cancer[]

A meta-analysis published in 2003 found a significant positive relationship in both control and cohort studies between saturated fat and breast cancer.[45] However two subsequent reviews have found weak or insignificant associations of saturated fat intake and breast cancer risk,[46][47] and note the prevalence of confounding factors.[46][48]

Colorectal cancer[]

One review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of colorectal cancer.[49]

Ovarian cancer[]

Meta-analyses of clinical studies found evidence for increased risk of ovarian cancer by high consumption of saturated fat.[50]

Prostate cancer[]

Some researchers have indicated that serum myristic acid[51][52] and palmitic acid[52] and dietary myristic[53] and palmitic[53] saturated fatty acids and serum palmitic combined with alpha-tocopherol supplementation[51] are associated with increased risk of prostate cancer in a dose-dependent manner. These associations may, however, reflect differences in intake or metabolism of these fatty acids between the precancer cases and controls, rather than being an actual cause.[52]

Bones[]

Mounting evidence indicates that the amount and type of fat in the diet can have important effects on bone health. Most of this evidence is derived from animal studies. The data from one study indicated that bone mineral density is negatively associated with saturated fat intake and that men may be particularly vulnerable.[54]

Dietary recommendations[]

Recommendations to reduce, limit or replace dietary intake of trans fats and saturated fats, in favor of unsaturated fats, are made by the World Health Organization,[55] American Heart Association,[8] Health Canada,[56] the US Department of Health and Human Services,[57] the UK National Health Service,[58] the UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition,[59] the Australian Department of Health and Aging,[60] the Singapore Ministry of Health,[61] the Indian Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,[62] the New Zealand Ministry of Health,[63] and Hong Kong's Department of Health.[64]

In 2003, the World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) expert consultation report concluded that "intake of saturated fatty acids is directly related to cardiovascular risk.[65] The traditional target is to restrict the intake of saturated fatty acids to less than 10% of daily energy intake and less than 7% for high-risk groups. If populations are consuming less than 10%, they should not increase that level of intake. Within these limits, the intake of foods rich in myristic and palmitic acids should be replaced by fats with a lower content of these particular fatty acids. In developing countries, however, where energy intake for some population groups may be inadequate, energy expenditure is high and body fat stores are low (BMI <18.5 kg/m2). The amount and quality of fat supply have to be considered keeping in mind the need to meet energy requirements. Specific sources of saturated fat, such as coconut and palm oil, provide low-cost energy and may be an important source of energy for the poor."[65]

A 2004 statement released by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) determined that "Americans need to continue working to reduce saturated fat intake…"[66] In addition, reviews by the American Heart Association led the Association to recommend reducing saturated fat intake to less than 7% of total calories according to its 2006 recommendations.[67][68] This concurs with similar conclusions made by the US Department of Health and Human Services, which determined that reduction in saturated fat consumption would positively affect health and reduce the prevalence of heart disease.[69]

The United Kingdom, National Health Service claims the majority of British people eat too much saturated fat. The British Heart Foundation also advises people to cut down on saturated fat. People are advised to cut down on saturated fat and read labels on the food they buy.[70][71]

A 2004 review stated that "no lower safe limit of specific saturated fatty acid intakes has been identified" and recommended that the influence of varying saturated fatty acid intakes against a background of different individual lifestyles and genetic backgrounds should be the focus in future studies.[72]

Blanket recommendations to lower saturated fat were criticized at a 2010 conference debate of the American Dietetic Association for focusing too narrowly on reducing saturated fats rather than emphasizing increased consumption of healthy fats and unrefined carbohydrates. Concern was expressed over the health risks of replacing saturated fats in the diet with refined carbohydrates, which carry a high risk of obesity and heart disease, particularly at the expense of polyunsaturated fats which may have health benefits. None of the panelists recommended heavy consumption of saturated fats, emphasizing instead the importance of overall dietary quality to cardiovascular health.[73]

In a 2017 comprehensive review of the literature and clinical trials, the American Heart Association published a recommendation that saturated fat intake be reduced or replaced by products containing monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, a dietary adjustment that could reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases by 30%.[8]

Molecular description[]

Two-dimensional representation of the saturated fatty acid myristic acid
A space-filling model of the saturated fatty acid myristic acid

The two-dimensional illustration has implicit hydrogen atoms bonded to each of the carbon atoms in the polycarbon tail of the myristic acid molecule (there are 13 carbon atoms in the tail; 14 carbon atoms in the entire molecule).

Carbon atoms are also implicitly drawn, as they are portrayed as intersections between two straight lines. "Saturated," in general, refers to a maximum number of hydrogen atoms bonded to each carbon of the polycarbon tail as allowed by the Octet Rule. This also means that only single bonds (sigma bonds) will be present between adjacent carbon atoms of the tail.

See also[]

References[]

  1. ^ Jump up to: a b Reece, Jane; Campbell, Neil (2002). Biology. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. pp. 69–70. ISBN 978-0-8053-6624-2.
  2. ^ "Saturated fats". American Heart Association. 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
  3. ^ "Top food sources of saturated fat in the US". Harvard University School of Public Health. 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
  4. ^ "Saturated, Unsaturated, and Trans Fats". choosemyplate.gov. 2020.
  5. ^ "Saturated Fat". American Heart Association. 2020.
  6. ^ "What are "oils"?". ChooseMyPlate.gov, US Department of Agriculture. 2015. Archived from the original on 9 June 2015. Retrieved 13 June 2015.
  7. ^ Hooper L, Martin N, Abdelhamid A, Davey Smith G (June 2015). "Reduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular disease". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 6 (6): CD011737. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011737. PMID 26068959.
  8. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Sacks FM, Lichtenstein AH, Wu JH, Appel LJ, Creager MA, Kris-Etherton PM, Miller M, Rimm EB, Rudel LL, Robinson JG, Stone NJ, Van Horn LV (July 2017). "Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory From the American Heart Association". Circulation. 136 (3): e1–e23. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510. PMID 28620111. S2CID 367602.
  9. ^ "USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20". United States Department of Agriculture. 2007. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016.
  10. ^ Kumar, Vijay (January 2014). "Cocoa Butter and its Alternatives". Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  11. ^ "Thrive Culinary Algae Oil". Retrieved 7 January 2019.
  12. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Anderson D. "Fatty acid composition of fats and oils" (PDF). Colorado Springs: University of Colorado, Department of Chemistry. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
  13. ^ "NDL/FNIC Food Composition Database Home Page". United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
  14. ^ "Basic Report: 04042, Oil, peanut, salad or cooking". USDA. Retrieved 16 January 2015.
  15. ^ "Oil, vegetable safflower, oleic". nutritiondata.com. Condé Nast. Retrieved 10 April 2017.
  16. ^ "Oil, vegetable safflower, linoleic". nutritiondata.com. Condé Nast. Retrieved 10 April 2017.
  17. ^ "Oil, vegetable, sunflower". nutritiondata.com. Condé Nast. Retrieved 27 September 2010.
  18. ^ USDA Basic Report Cream, fluid, heavy whipping
  19. ^ "Nutrition And Health". The Goose Fat Information Service.
  20. ^ "Egg, yolk, raw, fresh". nutritiondata.com. Condé Nast. Retrieved 24 August 2009.
  21. ^ "09038, Avocados, raw, California". National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 26. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. Retrieved 14 August 2014.
  22. ^ "Feinberg School > Nutrition > Nutrition Fact Sheet: Lipids". Northwestern University. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011.
  23. ^ Jump up to: a b Hooper, Lee; Martin, Nicole; Jimoh, Oluseyi F.; Kirk, Christian; Foster, Eve; Abdelhamid, Asmaa S. (21 August 2020). "Reduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular disease". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 8: CD011737. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011737.pub3. ISSN 1469-493X. PMC 8092457. PMID 32827219.
  24. ^ Graham I, Atar D, Borch-Johnsen K, Boysen G, Burell G, Cifkova R, et al. (2007). "European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: executive summary". European Heart Journal. 28 (19): 2375–2414. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehm316. PMID 17726041.
  25. ^ Labarthe D (2011). "Chapter 17 What Causes Cardiovascular Diseases?". Epidemiology and prevention of cardiovascular disease: a global challenge (2nd ed.). Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7637-4689-6.
  26. ^ Kris-Etherton PM, Innis S (September 2007). "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Dietary Fatty Acids". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 107 (9): 1599–1611 [1603]. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2007.07.024. PMID 17936958.
  27. ^ "Food Fact Sheet - Cholesterol" (PDF). British Dietetic Association. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
  28. ^ Jump up to: a b "Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors". World Heart Federation. 30 May 2017. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
  29. ^ "Lower your cholesterol". National Health Service. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
  30. ^ "Nutrition Facts at a Glance - Nutrients: Saturated Fat". Food and Drug Administration. 22 December 2009. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
  31. ^ "Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for fats, including saturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, and cholesterol". European Food Safety Authority. 25 March 2010. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
  32. ^ "Healthy diet: key facts". World Health Organization. 29 April 2020. Retrieved 6 July 2021.
  33. ^ Kim Y, Youjin J, Giovannucii EL (2021). "Association between dietary fat intake and mortality from all-causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies". Clinical Nutrition. 40 (3): 1060–1070. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2020.07.007. PMID 32723506.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  34. ^ Faculty of Public Health of the Royal Colleges of Physicians of the United Kingdom. "Position Statement on Fat" (PDF). Retrieved 25 January 2011.
  35. ^ Report of a Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation (2003). "Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases" (PDF). World Health Organization. Retrieved 11 March 2011.
  36. ^ "Cholesterol". Irish Heart Foundation. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
  37. ^ U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (December 2010). Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 (PDF) (7th ed.). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
  38. ^ Cannon C, O'Gara P (2007). Critical Pathways in Cardiovascular Medicine (2nd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 243.
  39. ^ Clarke R, Frost C, Collins R, Appleby P, Peto R (1997). "Dietary lipids and blood cholesterol: quantitative meta-analysis of metabolic ward studies". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 314 (7074): 112–7. doi:10.1136/bmj.314.7074.112. PMC 2125600. PMID 9006469.
  40. ^ Bucher HC, Griffith LE, Guyatt GH (February 1999). "Systematic review on the risk and benefit of different cholesterol-lowering interventions". Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 19 (2): 187–195. doi:10.1161/01.atv.19.2.187. PMID 9974397.
  41. ^ Jump up to: a b Lewington S, Whitlock G, Clarke R, Sherliker P, Emberson J, Halsey J, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R (December 2007). "Blood cholesterol and vascular mortality by age, sex, and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of individual data from 61 prospective studies with 55,000 vascular deaths". Lancet. 370 (9602): 1829–39. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61778-4. PMID 18061058. S2CID 54293528.
  42. ^ Labarthe D (2011). "Chapter 11 Adverse Blood Lipid Profile". Epidemiology and prevention of cardiovascular disease: a global challenge (2 ed.). Jones and Bartlett Publishers. p. 290. ISBN 978-0-7637-4689-6.
  43. ^ Labarthe D (2011). "Chapter 11 Adverse Blood Lipid Profile". Epidemiology and prevention of cardiovascular disease: a global challenge (2nd ed.). Jones and Bartlett Publishers. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-7637-4689-6.
  44. ^ Thijssen MA, Mensink RP (2005). "Fatty acids and atherosclerotic risk". Atherosclerosis: Diet and Drugs. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. 170. Springer. pp. 165–94. doi:10.1007/3-540-27661-0_5. ISBN 978-3-540-22569-0. PMID 16596799.
  45. ^ Boyd NF, Stone J, Vogt KN, Connelly BS, Martin LJ, Minkin S (November 2003). "Dietary fat and breast cancer risk revisited: a meta-analysis of the published literature". British Journal of Cancer. 89 (9): 1672–1685. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6601314. PMC 2394401. PMID 14583769.
  46. ^ Jump up to: a b Hanf V, Gonder U (1 December 2005). "Nutrition and primary prevention of breast cancer: foods, nutrients and breast cancer risk". European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology. 123 (2): 139–149. doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2005.05.011. PMID 16316809.
  47. ^ Lof M, Weiderpass E (February 2009). "Impact of diet on breast cancer risk". Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 21 (1): 80–85. doi:10.1097/GCO.0b013e32831d7f22. PMID 19125007. S2CID 9513690.
  48. ^ Freedman LS, Kipnis V, Schatzkin A, Potischman N (March–April 2008). "Methods of Epidemiology: Evaluating the Fat–Breast Cancer Hypothesis – Comparing Dietary Instruments and Other Developments". Cancer Journal (Sudbury, Mass.). 14 (2): 69–74. doi:10.1097/PPO.0b013e31816a5e02. PMC 2496993. PMID 18391610.
  49. ^ Lin OS (2009). "Acquired risk factors for colorectal cancer". Cancer Epidemiology. Methods in Molecular Biology. 472. pp. 361–72. doi:10.1007/978-1-60327-492-0_16. ISBN 978-1-60327-491-3. PMID 19107442.
  50. ^ Huncharek M, Kupelnick B (2001). "Dietary fat intake and risk of epithelial ovarian cancer: a meta-analysis of 6,689 subjects from 8 observational studies". Nutrition and Cancer. 40 (2): 87–91. doi:10.1207/S15327914NC402_2. PMID 11962260. S2CID 24890525.
  51. ^ Jump up to: a b Männistö S, Pietinen P, Virtanen MJ, Salminen I, Albanes D, Giovannucci E, Virtamo J (December 2003). "Fatty acids and risk of prostate cancer in a nested case-control study in male smokers". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 12 (12): 1422–8. PMID 14693732.
  52. ^ Jump up to: a b c Crowe FL, Allen NE, Appleby PN, Overvad K, Aardestrup IV, Johnsen NF, Tjønneland A, Linseisen J, Kaaks R, Boeing H, Kröger J, Trichopoulou A, Zavitsanou A, Trichopoulos D, Sacerdote C, Palli D, Tumino R, Agnoli C, Kiemeney LA, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Chirlaque MD, Ardanaz E, Larrañaga N, Quirós JR, Sánchez MJ, González CA, Stattin P, Hallmans G, Bingham S, Khaw KT, Rinaldi S, Slimani N, Jenab M, Riboli E, Key TJ (November 2008). "Fatty acid composition of plasma phospholipids and risk of prostate cancer in a case-control analysis nested within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 88 (5): 1353–63. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2008.26369. PMID 18996872.
  53. ^ Jump up to: a b Kurahashi N, Inoue M, Iwasaki M, Sasazuki S, Tsugane AS (April 2008). "Dairy product, saturated fatty acid, and calcium intake and prostate cancer in a prospective cohort of Japanese men". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 17 (4): 930–7. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-07-2681. PMID 18398033. S2CID 551427.
  54. ^ Corwin RL, Hartman TJ, Maczuga SA, Graubard BI (2006). "Dietary saturated fat intake is inversely associated with bone density in humans: Analysis of NHANES III". The Journal of Nutrition. 136 (1): 159–165. doi:10.1093/jn/136.1.159. PMID 16365076. S2CID 4443420.
  55. ^ see the article Food pyramid (nutrition) for more information.
  56. ^ "Choosing foods with healthy fats". Health Canada. 10 October 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
  57. ^ "Cut Down on Saturated Fats" (PDF). United States Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
  58. ^ "Fat: the facts". United Kingdom's National Health Service. 27 April 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
  59. ^ "Saturated Fats and Health". Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN). Retrieved 26 July 2021.
  60. ^ "Fat". Australia's National Health and Medical Research Council and Department of Health and Ageing. 24 September 2012. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
  61. ^ "Getting the Fats Right!". Singapore's Ministry of Health. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
  62. ^ "Health Diet". India's Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
  63. ^ "Making healthier food choices". New Zealand's Ministry of Health. Retrieved 3 June 2021.
  64. ^ "Know More about Fat". Hong Kong's Department of Health. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
  65. ^ Jump up to: a b Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation (2003). Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases (WHO technical report series 916) (PDF). World Health Organization. pp. 81–94. ISBN 978-92-4-120916-8. Retrieved 4 April 2016.
  66. ^ "Trends in Intake of Energy, Protein, Carbohydrate, Fat, and Saturated Fat — United States, 1971–2000". Centers for Disease Control. 2004. Archived from the original on 1 December 2008.
  67. ^ Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Brands M, Carnethon M, Daniels S, Franch HA, Franklin B, Kris-Etherton P, Harris WS, Howard B, Karanja N, Lefevre M, Rudel L, Sacks F, Van Horn L, Winston M, Wylie-Rosett J (July 2006). "Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee". Circulation. 114 (1): 82–96. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.176158. PMID 16785338. S2CID 647269.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  68. ^ Smith SC, Jackson R, Pearson TA, Fuster V, Yusuf S, Faergeman O, Wood DA, Alderman M, Horgan J, Home P, Hunn M, Grundy SM (June 2004). "Principles for national and regional guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention: a scientific statement from the World Heart and Stroke Forum" (PDF). Circulation. 109 (25): 3112–21. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000133427.35111.67. PMID 15226228.
  69. ^ "Dietary Guidelines for Americans" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. 2005.
  70. ^ Eat less saturated fat
  71. ^ Fats explained
  72. ^ German JB, Dillard CJ (September 2004). "Saturated fats: what dietary intake?". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 80 (3): 550–559. doi:10.1093/ajcn/80.3.550. PMID 15321792.
  73. ^ Zelman, K (2011). "The Great Fat Debate: A Closer Look at the Controversy—Questioning the Validity of Age-Old Dietary Guidance". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 111 (5): 655–658. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2011.03.026. PMID 21515106.

Further reading[]

Retrieved from ""