Sex trafficking
 | This article is written like a personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic. (July 2020) |
Sex trafficking is human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation, including sexual slavery, which is considered a form of modern slavery.[1] A victim is forced, in one of a variety of ways, into a situation of dependency on their trafficker(s) and then used by the trafficker(s) to perform sexual services to customers.[2] Sex trafficking crimes can involve acquisition, transportation and exploitation;[1] this includes child sex tourism (CST), domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) or other kinds of commercial sexual exploitation of children, and prostitution.[2]
In 2012, the International Labour Organization (ILO) reported 20.9 million people were subjected to forced labour, and 22% (4.5 million) are victims of forced sexual exploitation.[3] The ILO reported in 2016 that of the estimated 25 million persons in forced labor, 5 million were victims of sexual exploitation.[4][5] However, due to the covertness of sex trafficking, obtaining accurate, reliable statistics is difficult for researchers.[6] The global commercial profits for sexual slavery are estimated to be $99 billion according to ILO.[7] In 2005, the figure was given as $9 billion for the total human trafficking.[8][9]
Most victims find themselves in coercive or abusive situations from which escape is both difficult and dangerous. Locations where this practice occurs span the globe and reflect an intricate web between nations, making it very difficult to construct viable solutions to this human rights problem.[citation needed]
Common misconceptions[]
There are a number of misconceptions about sex trafficking. Sex trafficking and human trafficking are not to be confused with human smuggling. Human trafficking for sexual or other labor may involve transporting victims across international borders, but to meet the definition of trafficking, there needs only to be exploitation of an individual after they have been coerced or deceived, so it does not necessarily involve transportation across national borders.[10] Human trafficking and sex trafficking are often used as synonyms. However, trafficking for non-sexual exploitation may be even more prevalent than trafficking for sexual exploitation, though accurate estimates of trafficking rates are extremely difficult to obtain.[11][12][13] Sex trafficking tends to receive more attention from aid organizations and donors due to the greater public outrage that forced sexual labor evokes compared to forced non-sexual labor and thus incidents of sex trafficking are more frequently reported.[11]
Sex trafficking is also commonly conflated with non-coerced sex work criminalized as prostitution.[14][15][16][17][18] These misconceptions often stem from underreporting of trafficking because of the survivor's fear of their trafficker,[17][18][19][20] ever-changing legal definitions of what qualifies as sex trafficking and prostitution,[17][21] and conflicting views of trafficking and sex work.[15][16][17][21] In addition, some researchers argue that the main research that underscores these debates is flawed for leaving sex workers and survivors of sex trafficking out of the conversation.[16] Other scholars argue the two are commonly conflated because of the inherent link between volitional prostitution and sex trafficking.[17] Those who argue this believe that commercial sex increases the demand for sexual services and consequently increases sex trafficking.[17] Some anti-sex trafficking programs and initiatives have been criticised for contributing to these misconceptions because they give non-trafficked sex workers incentives to identify as victims of trafficking, such as gaining access to resources like shelters.[22] Law enforcement agencies have been criticised for providing similar incentives, because they threaten suspected prostitutes with jail time if they admit they are working by choice, while those who claim they are trafficking victims get training workshops and social services instead of jail time.[22] Such policies, though beneficial to actual trafficking victims, inflate reported rates of trafficking.
Many feminist scholars conflict on their view of trafficking and sex work. There are two dominant frameworks that demonstrate the divide: the abolitionist discourse, which derives from dominance feminist theory,[15] and the sex work discourse.[21] Feminist scholars in the abolitionist discourse argue that all prostitution is coerced due to the prevalence of compulsory heterosexuality and social and economic pressures stemming from neoliberalism and patriarchy.[14][23] These arguments frame women as victims of sexual slavery and attribute male sexuality as the problem.[21] In addition to ignoring the fact that many men and non-binary people engage in sex work, the abolitionist discourse conflicts with studies conducted by groups and individuals who advocate for the decriminalization of sex work.[24] Decriminalization views sex workers as autonomous, entrepreneurial workers[25] who sometimes work consensually with third parties such as brothels and club owners and see the higher remuneration and flexibility of sexual labor as preferable to poorer paying and inflexible mainstream employment where they are subject to sexual harassment and assault by male employers and colleagues.[22][26][27] This view also sees sex work as an active choice or a means of survival given the unequal distribution of wealth and poverty,[21] as well as a result of structural factors such as racism, classism, and sexism,[20] not just a result of men's sexuality and lust.[15][21] On the abolitionist side of the debate, a number of activist organizations seeking to provide services to trafficking victims, lobby for anti-trafficking legislation, and raise public awareness about sex-trafficking. These activists often advocate for the criminalization of voluntary sex work as well.[14][15] On the sex work discourse side of the debate, advocates argue for reduced stigmatization of prostitution, improved working conditions, and accessible social services.[20][21][25] Many advocates on this side of the debate lobby for full decriminalization of prostitution since it is viewed as a legitimate, autonomous choice of profession.[15][17][25]
Some third-way feminist scholars combine aspects of both frameworks to create new theoretical lenses for viewing sex trafficking and prostitution.[15] Third-way frameworks affirm that sex trafficking and prostitution are forms of sex-based domination and exploitation, however they also allow room for a diverse array of women's experiences with these industries.[15] Under this framework, neither sex trafficking nor prostitution are monolithic issues and often intersect with other forms of oppression but can also involve autonomous choices.[15] This theoretical lens advocates for reform of police investigation and prostitution, increased availability of labor and social services outside of sex work to decrease the likelihood of entering either industry, and including women's voices in conversations regarding intervention.[15]
These misconceptions often lead to law enforcement misidentifying sex trafficking as prostitution and vice versa.[18]
Defining the issue[]
Global[]
In 2000, countries adopted a definition set forth by the .[28] The United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime, Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, is also referred to as the Palermo Protocol. The Palermo Protocol created this definition.[28] 147 of the 192 member states of the UN ratified the Palermo Protocol when it was published in 2000;[28] as of September 2017, 171 states are parties.[29] Article 3 of the Palermo Protocol states the definition as:[30]
(a) "Trafficking in persons" shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.
Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs;
(b) The consent of a victim of trafficking in persons to the intended exploitation set forth in subparagraph (a) of this article shall be irrelevant where any of the means set forth in subparagraph (a) have been used;
(c) The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of a child for the purpose of exploitation shall be considered "trafficking in persons" even if this does not involve any of the means set forth in subparagraph (a) of this article;
(d) "Child" shall mean any person under eighteen years of age.
Article 5 of the Palermo Protocol then requires the member states to criminalize trafficking based on the definition outlined in Article 3; however, many member states' domestic laws reflect a narrower definition than Article 3.[28] Although these nations claim to be obliging Article 5, the narrow laws lead to a smaller portion of people being prosecuted for sex trafficking.[28]
The UN established various anti-trafficking tools, including a Global Report on Trafficking in Persons and an Inter-Agency Coordination Group Against Trafficking in Persons. The Global Report on Trafficking in Person provides new information based on data gathered from 155 countries. It offers first global assessment of the scope of human trafficking and what is being done to fight it. The UN General Assembly passed several resolutions on measuring to eliminate human trafficking. In 2010 the UN Global Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons was adopted. Various other organizations have engaged in global efforts against sex trafficking. "The UN Protocol's is the bedrock of the international initiatives against human sex trafficking." This protocol defines certain elements of sex trafficking: "action", which describes the recruitment and transportation of victims, "means", which includes coercion, fraud, or abuse of power, and "purpose", which includes exploitation such as prostitution, forced labor or slavery, and the removal of organs. The UN requires member states to establish the trafficking of humans as a criminal offense.
United States[]
After members of Prostitutes Anonymous who were survivors of modern domestic sex trafficking spent 13 years doing TV, radio, public appearances, news interviews, etc. and calling out that this country needed to "'do something' about it" – an internationally recognized definition for sex trafficking was finally established with the Trafficking Act of 2000. It was during the same year the Palermo Protocol was enacted, the United States passed the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (TVPA) to clarify the previous confusion and discrepancies in regards to the criminalizing guidelines of human trafficking.[31] Through this act, sex trafficking crimes were defined as a situation where in which a "commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or in which the person induced to perform such act has not attained 18 years of age."[32][33] If the victim is a child under the age of 18 no force, fraud, or coercion needs to be proven based on this legislation.[31] Susan Tiefenbrun, a professor at the Thomas Jefferson School of Law who has written extensively on human trafficking, conducted research on the victims addressed in this act and discovered that each year more than two million women throughout the world are bought and sold for sexual exploitation.[6] To clarify previous legal inconsistencies in regards to youth and trafficking, the United States took legal measures to define more varieties of exploitive situations in relation to children.[31] The two terms they defined and focused on were "commercial sexual exploitation of children" and "domestic minor sex trafficking." Commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) is defined as "encompassing several forms of exploitation, including pornography, prostitution, child sex tourism, and child marriage."[31] Domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) is a term that represents a subset of CSEC situations that have "the exchange of sex with a child under the age of 18, who is a United States (US) citizen or permanent resident, for a gain of cash, goods, or anything of value."[31]
According to ECPAT USA, the average age of entry into street prostitution is between 12 and 14 years old. The demographic of street prostitutes range from poor women, kids, ethnic minorities, and immigrants.[20] In the United States, sex traffickers and pimps often find their victims in malls or on the streets. Sometimes vulnerable looking girls will be abducted while walking to their cars. Other times the pimps will go up to a victim and convince them to leave with them, often offering a job of some kind and money. Vulnerability increases when girls are young or homeless.[17][20][34][35] Emotional and physical coercion is used for the victim to trust the pimp and build a relationship.[17][18] This coercion often makes the relationships between trafficker and trafficked and pimp and prostitute difficult to identify.[15][17] Often, the victims are tricked into thinking they will have freedom in the work they are promised along with a large sum of money but instead, they become a sex slave. After the victim has agreed to the pimp's offer, they are forcibly dissuaded from leaving by forcing addictive drugs, withholding money and physical/sexual abuse. Girls are often motivated by finances and basic survival.[20] It is very common in the United States for pimps to own a business or store, especially nail salons and massage parlors. It is also very common for sex slavery businesses to be conducted near U.S. military bases, because of the business soldiers bring.[36]
Profile and modus operandi of traffickers[]
Hotel brands[]
Hotel brands owned by Hilton, Intercontinental and Best Western are among a number of leading global chains accused in 2019 of profiting from sex trafficking.[37]
Pimp-controlled trafficking[]
In pimp-controlled trafficking, the victim is controlled by a single trafficker, sometimes called a pimp. The victim can be controlled by the trafficker physically, psychologically, and/or emotionally. To obtain control over their victims, traffickers will use force, drugs, emotional tactics as well as financial means. In certain circumstances, they will even resort to various forms of violence, such as gang rape and mental and physical abuse. Traffickers sometimes use offers of marriage, threats, intimidation, brainwashing and kidnapping as means of obtaining victims.
A common process is for the trafficker to first gain the trust of the victim, called the grooming stage. They seek to make the victim dependent on them.[38] The trafficker may express love and admiration, make lofty promises such as making the victim a star, offer them a job or an education or buy them a ticket to a new location.[39] The main types of work offered are in the catering and hotel industry, in bars and clubs, modeling contracts, or au pair work. Once the victim is comfortable, the pimp moves to the seasoning stage, where they will ask the victim to perform sexual acts for the pimp, which the victim may do because they believe it is the only way to keep the trafficker's affection. The requests progress from there and it can be difficult for the victim to escape.[38]
Another tactic is for traffickers to kidnap their victims, and then drug them or secure them so they cannot escape.[40] Traffickers may seek out potential victims who are traveling alone, are separated from their group, or seem like they have low self-esteem. They may go to places likes malls where they are more likely to find girls without parents.[41]
Traffickers are using social media at an increasing rate to find victims, research potential victims, control their victims and advertise their victims.[42][43] Traffickers often target people who post things that indicate that they are depressed, have low self-esteem or are angry with their parents.[44] Traffickers also use social media posts to establish patterns and track the locations of potential victims.[45]
After the victim has joined the offender, various techniques are used to restrict the victim's access to communication with home, such as imposing physical punishment unless the victim complies with the trafficker's demands and making threats of harm and even death to the victim and their family.[39] Sometimes, the victims will succumb to Stockholm syndrome because their captors will profess to "love" and "need" them, even going so far as promise marriage and future stability. This is particularly effective with younger victims, because they are more inexperienced and therefore easily manipulated.[46]
In India, those who traffic young girls into prostitution are often women who have been trafficked themselves. As adults they use personal relationships and trust in their villages of origin to recruit additional girls.[47] Also, some (migrating) prostitutes (See: migrant sex work) can become victims of human trafficking because the women know they will be working as prostitutes; however, they are given an inaccurate description by their "boss" of the circumstances. Therefore, they consequently get exploited due to their misconception of what conditions to expect of their sex work in the new destination country.[48][49]
Gang-controlled trafficking[]
Gang-controlled sex trafficking and Pimp-controlled sex trafficking run their operations in very similar ways. The largest difference between the two is that gang-controlled trafficking is run by a large group of people whereas pimp-controlled trafficking is run by only one person.[50] In general, Gang members are expected or forced to participate in tasks that involve illegal and violent activity. Some of these criminal behaviors may include: distributing drugs, robbery, trafficking drugs, extortion, and murder.[51] One money making source that many people do not necessarily associate with gangs is human sex trafficking. Gangs are now turning to sex trafficking as it is seen as safer and more lucrative than drug trafficking.[52]
The gangs can make larger amounts of money quicker by selling other people's bodies, and are less likely to get caught.[53] In certain circumstances, gangs may team up with other gangs in the area, and work together as a sex ring. There are a number of different reasons that gangs make this decision. One reason is that it enables them to increase profits by trading different girls, women, boys or men. This gives their client, also known as a john, a greater variety of options to choose from. Clients are often willing to pay a larger price for a sexual experience with someone new. Another reason that gangs will share females is because this makes it more difficult for law enforcement to keep track of the victims, ultimately preventing them from making a positive identification.[51]
When people think or talk about sex trafficking a very common question people will ask is, "where do they find people to traffic?" In many cases, gang members will scope girls out at malls, skip parties, online and through social media. In addition, they often will seek out female runaways from their neighborhood. Many of the girls they look for have been physically or sexually abused, have low self-esteem, struggle with drug and alcohol dependency, or are seeking a home/family environment.[54]
For the gang to sex traffic an individual, the first thing they need to do is gain that person's trust. They shower the victim with praise and attention, making her feel important and desired. This is referred to as the Romeo Method. It consists of different manipulation techniques. A member will take her to a fancy restaurant, flounder her with lavish gifts, and take her to parties where they are provided with endless supplies of drugs and alcohol. They also learn their weaknesses at the same time, find his or her vulnerabilities and once they find that soft spot they can use it against them.[55]
Gang members often wear certain types of clothing or colors to prove their commitment or loyalty to the gang. It is also very common to represent your gang by branding your body with tattoos.[54] Unfortunately, many victims of sex trafficking are being branded as well. By forcing a tattoo onto their victims they are essentially marking their territory and officially displaying ownership of that person.[56] In the short film, Unbranded: Sex Trafficking Tattoo Removal, Vice Media dives deep into the recovery stages of a young girl who was trafficked for three years. During her time of being exploited, she was forced to receive a tattoo by her trafficker.[57][58]
Familial trafficking[]
In familial trafficking, the victim is controlled by family members who allow them to be sexually exploited in exchange for something of value, such as drugs or money. For example, a mother may allow a boyfriend to abuse a child in exchange for housing. Usually, it begins with one family member and spreads from there. Familial trafficking may be difficult to detect because these children often have a larger degree of freedom and may still attend school and after-school functions. These children may not understand that they are being trafficked or may not have a way out. Familial trafficking is considered by some to be the most prevalent form of human sex trafficking within the United States.[38][59]
This form of trafficking is also extremely common outside of the United States. Many families from impoverished areas (India, Thailand, Philippines, etc.) find themselves in situations where debt or tradition calls for the selling of a loved one, most commonly female. In Thailand there is a tradition known as bhun kun, which establishes the youngest daughter as financially responsible for her parents as they grow old. Author Kara Siddharth interviewed a Thai victim who stated that, though she hated the men she was with, "she was proud to fulfill her duty to her parents in the form of tiny payments that the brothel owner sent to her father after her trafficking debts were repaid". This is just one of the many countries whose lower class turn to this form of income. Many children are sold to repay debts, or merely to put food on the table for their family for a month.[60][61]
Cybersex trafficking[]
Cybersex trafficking involves trafficking and the live streaming of coerced sexual acts and/or rape on webcam.[62][63][64] Victims are abducted, threatened, or deceived and transferred to 'cybersex dens.'[65][66][67] The dens can be in any location where the cybersex traffickers have a computer, tablet, or phone with internet connection.[63] Perpetrators use social media networks, videoconferences, pornographic video sharing websites, dating pages, online chat rooms, apps, dark web sites,[68] and other platforms.[69]
This type of sex trafficking has surged since the advent of the Digital Age[62][63] and the development of online payment systems[68][70][71] and cryptocurrencies that hide the transactors' identities.[72] Millions of reports of its occurrence are sent to authorities annually.[73] New laws and police procedures combating cybersex trafficking are needed in the twenty-first century.[74]
Forced marriage[]
A forced marriage is a marriage where one or both participants are married without their freely given consent.[75] Servile marriage is defined as a marriage involving a person being sold, transferred or inherited into that marriage.[76] According to ECPAT, "Child trafficking for forced marriage is simply another manifestation of trafficking and is not restricted to particular nationalities or countries".[77]
A forced marriage qualifies as a form of human trafficking in certain situations. If a woman is sent abroad, forced into the marriage and then repeatedly compelled to engage in sexual conduct with her new husband, then her experience is that of sex trafficking. If the bride is treated as a domestic servant by her new husband and/or his family, then this is a form of labor trafficking.[78]
Approximately 140 million girls under the age of 18, which is about 39,000 a day, will be forced into early marriages between 2011 and 2020.[79] Forced marriage, which is identified by the United Nations as a "contemporary form of slavery," occurs without full consent of the man or woman, and is associated with threats by family members or the bride/groom. Forced marriage occurs not only in foreign countries but in the US as well. The service providers in the United States cannot successfully respond to forced marriage cases because they lack clarity and a true definition of what a forced marriage is.[59]
Causes[]
There is not one simple factor that perpetuates sex trafficking, rather a complex, interconnected web of political, socioeconomic, governmental, and societal factors.[80] The causes of sex trafficking which have been identified lie at the intersections of these factors. There are three types of causes which have been identified: gender hierarchies, migration for work (pull factors), and neoliberal globalization (push factors).
Many scholars critique the power hierarchies based on gender, race, and class which underlie economic systems as perpetuators of women's vulnerability to sex trafficking. Copley argues that women in underdeveloped countries are powerless due to these hierarchies of power.[81] Matusek also argues this point, noting that globalization spreads power hierarchies while spreading economic policy.[82] Ideas of gender are thus perpetuated through globalization, leaving women vulnerable.[82] Matusek cites masculinity as privileged with power and control in these hierarchies.[82] Femininity, she notes, is associated with submissive and passive qualities.[82] Femininity's lack of power leaves women to be used by men and consequently be seen as disposable.[82] This view of women is perpetuated through the globalization of power hierarchies, which Matusek argues justifies and normalizes violence and power against women.[82] This normalization of violence and power is a key player in the existence and continuation of sex trafficking.[82] Vesna Nikovic-Ristanovic also cites this normalization of violence and power as a cause of sex trafficking.[83]
Nikovic-Ristanovic analyzes the role of perceived femininity in women's vulnerability to sex trafficking, by specifically looking at the links between militarism and female sexuality.[83] Nikovic-Ristanovic cites a connection between war rapes and forced prostitution and sex trafficking.[83] The way women's bodies are used in war relate to the normalization of violence and power against women.[83] Nikovic-Ristanovic argues that military presence, even in times of peace, promote ideas of gender which render women vulnerable.[83] These ideas concern hegemonic masculinity, which Nikovic-Ristanovic defines as the hyper sexuality of men and the submissiveness or passivity of women and girls.[83] Nikovic-Ristanovic notes that the global acceptance of this definition justifies exploitation and violence against women since women are viewed as sex objects for the fulfillment of male's sexual desire.[83] This Western ideal of heteronormative sexuality, Nikovic-Ristanovic argues, is also perpetuated through media and advertisements, in which women are encouraged to appear sexually attractive for men.[83]
Kim Anh Duong argues that social narratives about women which arise from power hierarchies, coupled with women's economic realities, render women vulnerable to exploitation and sex trafficking.[84] Duong identifies the prevailing narrative of women as the disadvantaged victim.[84] She cites powerlessness as the result of this narrative, which is further perpetuated by social and economic realities which result from development process which leave women dependent on men.[84] This overall powerlessness, according to Duong, makes women easy targets of exploitation and violence.[84]
Susan Tiefenbrun, like Duong, notes women's lower status of power and consequential dependence on men.[85] Tiefenbrun, unlike Duong, cites cultural norms as the cause of this vulnerability.[85] She argues that cultural norms deprive women of access to and time for receiving an education or learning skills to improve employment opportunities.[85] This lack of education and access to employment results in women's dependence on men.[85] Tiefenbrun argues that women's dependence renders them more vulnerable to traffickers.[85]
Another school of thought attributes women's migration for work in a context of strict immigration controls as the primary factor in women's vulnerability in becoming trafficked for sex. There has been an increase in women migrating within and across borders. Duong cites a demand for women migrant workers which encourages migration.[84] The globalization of neoliberalism has shifted the global economy's focus to export production. Duong notes that there is a demand for women in export production because employers are able to pay them the lowest wages.[84] Another reason for the demand of women workers is that there is a demand for care work.[84] Since care work is gendered as women's work, Duong argues that women are encouraged to migrate to fill this demand.[84] Janie Chuang is one scholar who notes the strict border controls which leave women who migrate for work in informal labor sectors, such as for care work, with little opportunity for legal migration.[86] Chuang notes that women are thus more vulnerable to being taken advantage of by sex traffickers who provide opportunities for illegal migration.[86] Strict immigration laws are also cited by Tiefenbrun as a key factor in individuals entering sex trafficking because women will agree to debt bondages and sex traffickers’ incentives to flee their social and economic realities.[85]
One cause for women's migration that is widely agreed upon by scholars is the economic pressure upon women due to neoliberal globalization. Siddharth Kara argues that globalization and the spread of Western Capitalism drive inequality and rural poverty, which are the material causes for sex trafficking.[1] Dong-Hoon Seol points out unequal development between countries as an effect of the globalization of neoliberalism.[87] He argues that the growing disparity of wealth between developed and underdeveloped countries leads to migration of women from underdeveloped countries.[87]
Duong cites Structural adjustment programs (SAPs), an aspect of development policies in the globalization of neoliberalism, as a cause for women's poverty, unemployment, and low wages which promote migration.[84] SAPs affect men and women differently, she argues, because men and women experience poverty differently.[84] This is known as the feminization of poverty.[84] Much of women's time is spent doing unpaid labor such as housework and care work, leading to an overall lower income.[84] Duong further argues that women are placed at a greater disadvantage due to their lack of access to land and other resources.[84] Matusek also argues that the unequal distribution of resources and power lead to both push and pull factors of migration.[82] According to Matusek, women are pushed to migrate on account of a lack of education and employment opportunities.[82]
Other scholars focus on the demand for sex itself as a cause of sex trafficking. The pull factor comes from globalization creating a market around sex.[82] Matusek cites the commodification aspect of capitalism as the cause for the industrialization of sex.[82] The pull factor comes from globalization creating a market around sex.[82] Seol also cites the globalization of the commodification aspect of capitalism as a cause of sex trafficking.[87]
Prevention[]
In the United States anyone is permitted to contact the Polaris Project at 1(888)-373-7888. The hotline is beneficial since providers are available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week to assist victims and provide information for those who are at risk. There are a variety of ways to help prevent trafficking. One must be aware of the indicators to identify victims: abnormal behavior, poor physical health, lack of control, and work and living conditions.[88] However, these signs may only be shown through a number of people – there may be more severe, serious indicators of sex trafficking.
Profile of victims[]
There is no single profile for victims of human trafficking. Most are women, though it is not uncommon for males to be trafficked as well. Victims are captured then exploited all around the world, representing a diverse range of ages and backgrounds, including ethnic and socioeconomic. However, there is a set group of traits associated with a higher risk of becoming trafficked for sexual exploitation. Persons at risk include homeless and runaway youth, foreign nationals (especially those of lower socioeconomic status), and those who have experienced physical, emotional, or sexual abuse, violent trauma, neglect, poor academic success, and inadequate social skills.[2][89] Also, a study of a group of female sex workers in Canada found that 64 percent of them had been in the child welfare system as children (this includes foster and group homes).[2] This research conducted by Kendra Nixon illustrates how children in or leaving foster care are at a higher risk of becoming a sex worker.[2]
In the United States, research has illustrated how these qualities hold true for victims, even though none can be labeled as a direct cause.[31] For example, more than 50 percent of domestic minor sex trafficking victims have a history of homelessness.[31] Familial disruptions such as divorce or the death of a parent place minors at a higher risk of entering the industry, but home life in general influences children's risk. In a study of trafficked youth in Arizona, 20 to 40 percent of female victims identified with experiencing abuse of some form (sexual or physical) at home before entering into the industry as a sex slave.[31] Of the males interviewed, a smaller proportion, 0 to 30 percent, reported former abuse in the home.[31]
The main motive of a woman (in some cases, an underage girl) to accept an offer from a trafficker is better financial opportunities for herself or her family. A study on the origin countries of trafficking confirms that most trafficking victims are not the poorest in their countries of origin, and sex trafficking victims are likely to be women from countries with some freedom to travel alone and some economic freedom.[90]
There are numerous fake businesses that sound realistic that convince people to apply for the job. Some places have a reputation for holding an illegal business to attract their victims.[91]
Children are at risk because of their vulnerable characteristics; naïve outlook, size, and tendency to be easily intimidated".[2] The International Labor Organization estimates that of the 20.9 million people who are trafficked in the world (for all types of work) 5.5 million are children.[92] In 2016, it was estimated that approximately one million children worldwide were victims of sex trafficking. Both boys and girls may be trafficked, though girls are more frequently victims; 23% of human trafficking victims identified by a United Nations Report were girls, compared to 7% for boys. Female child trafficking victims are more likely to experience sexual exploitation: 72% and 27% incidence rates for girls and boy, respectively.[93]
In the US, children do not need to be forced into sexual exploitation according to the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 to be considered victims of sex trafficking. Under this act, a child is defined as anyone under the age of 18, however the exploitation of children under the age of 14 carries a harsher punishment, though this is rarely enforced. The Bureau of Justice Statistics states that there are 100,000 child victims of sex trafficking, but only 150 child trafficking cases were brought to court in 2011. Of these, only 81 convictions were made. Many children who are trafficked are also at higher risk of turning to prostitution, a crime that many of them face criminal charges for, even under the age of 18.[94]
Consequences to victims[]
Sex trafficked people face similar health consequences to women exploited for labor purposes, people who have experienced domestic violence, and migrant women.[95] Many of the sex workers contract sexually transmitted infections (STIs).[31] In a study conducted by the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, "only one of 23 trafficked women interviewed felt well-informed about sexually transmitted infections or HIV before leaving home."[95] Without knowledge about this aspect of their health, trafficked women may not take the necessary preventive steps and contract these infections and have poor health seeking behavior in the future.[95] The mental health implications range from depression to anxiety to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to the abuse and violence victims face from their pimps or "Johns".[31] With such a mindset, many individuals develop alcohol or drug addictions and abusive habits.[31] Also, traffickers commonly coerce or force their sex workers to use alcohol or drugs when they are in childhood or adolescence.[2] Many victims use these substances as a coping mechanism or escape which further promotes the rate of addiction in this population.[2] In a 30-year longitudinal study conducted by J. Potterat et al., it was determined that the average lifespan for women engaged in prostitution in Colorado Springs was 34 years.[31]
Around the world[]
Africa[]
Sex trafficking of women and children is the second most common type of trafficking for export in Africa.[96] In Ghana, "connection men" or traffickers are witnessed regularly at border crossings and transport individuals via fake visas. Women are most commonly trafficked to Belgium, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, the Netherlands, Nigeria, and the United States.[96] Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, and the United States are also common destination countries for trafficked Nigerian women.[96] In Uganda, the Lord's Resistance Army traffics individuals to Sudan to sell them as sex slaves.[96] The Nigerian syndicates dominate sex trades in multiple territories. The syndicates recruit women from South Africa and send them to Europe and Asia, where they are forced into prostitution, drug smuggling, or domestic violence. Law enforcement reported that sex traffickers force drug use to persuade these unwilling women.[97]
Americas[]
Sex trafficking is a problem in North America, Central America, and South America[98] People have been sex trafficked to and through Mexico.[99][100][101][102][103][104]
Asia[]
The key hubs for both source transportation and destination of the sub-region of Asia include India, Japan, South Korea and Thailand.[105] India is a major hub for trafficked Bangladeshi and Nepali women.[106] In India itself, there are an estimated 3 million sex workers, 40% of whom are trafficked children, mostly girls from ethnic minorities and lower castes. In Thailand, 800,000 children under the age of 16 were involved in prostitution in 2004.[107] Also, according to UNICEF and the International Labour Organization there are 40,000 child prostitutes in Sri Lanka.[107] Thailand and India are in the top five countries with the highest rates of child prostitution.[107] The 2014 Global Slavery Index (GSI) says that there are about 36 million victims of trafficking in the world, and nearly two-thirds of the people are from Asia. Pakistan, Thailand, China, India, and Bangladesh are in the top 10 for countries with the largest number of trafficking victims around the world. India is at the top of the list with 14 million victims, China comes in second with 3.2 million victims, and Pakistan comes in at third with 2.1 million victims.[108] Cambodia is also a transit, source, and a destination country for trafficking.[109] 36% of trafficked victims in Asia are children, while 64% are adults.[110]
Canada[]
According to Statistics Canada, in instances of human trafficking, 44% are sexually-related, which predominantly include offering sexually related services, sexual assault, offences, and exploitation.[111] Sex trafficking is one of Canada's largest and fastest-growing criminal activities.[112] It is also one of the world's largest criminal enterprises that generates $99 billion (USD) in profit.[112] According to recent statistics from the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, one victim could generate between $168,000 and $336,000 a year for one 'pimp'.[112] While labour exploitation in Canada is extremely rare, human trafficking involving sexual exploitation is far more common, especially in densely populated urban areas but this may be because sexual exploitation is easier to detect in urban areas under current Canadian detection resources.[111] Migrant workers are most commonly affected by labour exploitation.[113] The Global Slavery Index noted in 2016 that roughly 17,000 people were experiencing modern-day slavery in Canada.[114] Instances of human trafficking occur, 90% of the time, in metropolitan areas, with 97% of victims being female.[115] The Criminal Code of Canada and the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act state that human trafficking is an offence, but do not make a distinction specifically between sex trafficking or exploitation, and other forms of human trafficking.[111][115] According to Public Safety Canada, at-risk groups of human trafficking include migrants and new immigrants, LGBTQ persons, people with disabilities, children in Welfare systems and At-Risk Youth.[115] Indigenous women and girls are disproportionately more affected by sex trafficking in Canada, however, the discourse surrounding exploited Indigenous women and girls is more frequently labelled as sex work as opposed to sex trafficking, which has left many trafficked victims unaccounted for.[116]
Within recent years, the Canadian federal government has shifted its approach to sex trafficking away from an international perspective towards a domestic emphasis.[117] This also includes the government's voicing of victims and witnesses along with a greater degree of attention to sex trafficking involving minors.[117] On 29 July 2020, the Government of Canada invested $19 million to combat human and sex trafficking in Canada.[118] This fund will be administered by two federal departments responsible for the implementation of the Government's five-year National Strategy to Combat Human Trafficking.[118] This federally collaborative approach to eradicate human trafficking will support those who are impacted.[118] Women and Gender Equality Canada plan to distribute $14 million to this effort, and $5 million will be funded through Public Safety Canada.[118] These efforts are designed to empower survivors, deter trafficking altogether, protect vulnerable populations, and prosecute perpetrators in collaboration with both territories and provinces.[115]
While there are no organizations in Canada focused exclusively on ending sex trafficking in Canada, The Canadian Centre to End Human Trafficking (CCEHT) is the only nationally coordinated effort focused on ending human trafficking more broadly in a Canadian context.[119] The CCEHT aims to organize collective action and systemic change in Canada.[119] The organization works with other nonprofits, businesses, and stakeholders to establish what the best practices are, and ensure that no duplicate efforts are happening due to miscommunications between various actors.[119] The CCEHT also provides services for survivors of sex trafficking in helping them return to society.[119] Many other organizations in Canada aim to reduce sex trafficking as one of several objectives.[120] Initiatives exist at federal, provincial and municipal levels.[120] Covenant House Toronto leads a national campaign called Traffick Stop.[121] Traffick Stop helps people develop skills to recognize the indicators of sex trafficking.[121] This campaign aims to inform Canadians about the existence of sex trafficking in Canada and its prevalence.[121]
Europe[]
In general, countries who are members of the European Union are destinations for individuals to be sex trafficked whereas the Balkans and Eastern Europe are source and transit countries.[96] Transit countries are picked for their geographical location. This is because the locations the traffickers pick usually have a weak border control, the distance from the destination countries, corrupt official, or the organized crime groups are in on the sex trafficking.[122] In 1997 alone as many as 175,000 young women from Russia, the former Soviet Union and Eastern and Central Europe were sold as commodities in the sex markets of the developed countries in Europe and the Americas.[123] The European Union reported that from 2010 to 2013 30,146 individuals were identified and registered as human trafficking victims.[124] Of those registered, 69 percent of the victims were sexually exploited and more than 1,000 were children.[124] Although many sex trafficked individuals are from outside of Europe, two-thirds of the 30,146 victims were EU citizens.[124] Despite this high proportion of domestic sex slaves, the most common ethnicities of women who are trafficked to the United Kingdom are Chinese, Brazilian, and Thai.[96] Moldova is a known country in Europe for women, children and men to be subjected to sex trafficking.[125] Girls from Moldova become sex slaves starting at the age of 14. On average, they have sex with 12 to 15 men per day.[126] The national Bureau of Statistics in Moldova says that in 2008 there were almost 25,000 victims of trafficking. When the women from Moldova are being trafficked for sex, they are most likely to be sent to countries such as Russia, Cyprus, Turkey, and other Middle Western and Eastern European countries.[127] 85 percent of the victims leave their country to find a better job to support their family, but they are tricked into becoming a sex slave and are forced to become a prostitute.[127] The International Organization for Migration (IOM) asked victims what country they came from and 61 percent of the victims came from Moldova, 19 percent came from Romania, and the rest came from Albania, Bulgaria, Russia, and Ukraine. More than 60 percent of the victims had a secondary school education or better, and their average age was 21.[127]
Iran[]
Iran is a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children subjected to sex trafficking and forced labor. Iranian girls between the ages of 13 and 17 are targeted by traffickers for sale abroad; younger girls may be forced into domestic service until their traffickers consider them old enough to be subjected to child sex trafficking. An increase in the transport of girls from and through Iran en route to other Gulf States for sexual exploitation has been reported from 2009 to 2015; during the reporting period, Iranian trafficking networks subjected Iranian girls to sex trafficking in brothels in the Iraqi Kurdistan Region. Organized criminal groups kidnap or purchase and force Iranian and immigrant children to work as beggars and street vendors in cities, including Tehran. These children, who may be as young as 3, are coerced through physical and sexual abuse and drug addiction; reportedly many are purchased for as little as $150.[128] Dozens of girls from Iran are brought to Pakistan to be sold as sex slaves every day.[129] Most of these women have already been raped within the first 24 hours of their departure.[130] It was also said in the Tehran newspapers that senior figures from the government have been involved in buying, selling, and abusing young women and children. Runaway girls in Iran are sought out for by the traffickers because it is incredibly easy to put them in the sex trafficking market since they have no home.[129] There are about 84,000 women and girls in prostitution in Tehran. Most of them are on the streets, while others are in the 250 brothels.[130]
Israel[]
The trafficking of women into prostitution in Israel increased in the early 1990s.[131] An estimate of three thousand women were being trafficked in the 1990s and early 2000s. Many of the women came from "post-Soviet states particularly Russia, Ukraine, Moldova and many more." The women ended up in brothels where they worked seven days a week and served up to 30 clients a day. The traffickers used physical violence and threats to dissuade the women from leaving, they also confined women behind locked doors and barred windows. Throughout the 1990s the Israeli authorities failed to view sex trafficking as a problem, they simply viewed it as prostitution. They failed to interfere with brothel operations. If a case was filed the trafficker would have had a plea bargain with light punishment. The women who were being trafficked on the other hand were classified as illegal alien or criminals since they entered Israel illegally, so authorities concentrated on catching the women rather than the traffickers. Usually the victims of trafficking are vulnerable because they live in poverty, or they are not educated. Trafficking affects the mental health of the victim as well as physical health. Israel has become a country of destination for women who had been trafficked from surrounding countries.
In 2000, the Knesset amended the Penal Law to prohibit sex trafficking. In 2006, an Anti-Trafficking Law was enacted. In 2001, Israel was placed in U.S. State Department Trafficking in Persons Report Tier 3. Between 2002 and 2011 Israel was placed in Tier 2. Since 2012 through the recent 2019 report Israel has been ranked Tier 1 (full compliance with the TVPA's minimum standards).[132][133][134]
Public health response[]
Healthcare interventions[]
There are many public health initiatives that are being implemented to identify victims of sex trafficking. There are few professionals that are likely to encounter victims of sex trafficking, but healthcare providers are a unique group because they are more likely to come into contact with individuals that are still in captivity.[135] The National Human Trafficking Resource Center provides guidelines to aid healthcare providers in identifying victims of sex trafficking. They provide general guidelines to indicate human trafficking (i.e. inconsistent/scripted history, unwillingness to answer questions about illness or injury, etc.), but also includes indicators to home in on sex trafficking.[136] In addition, this network has created a framework for sex trafficking protocols in healthcare settings once a victim is suspected or identified. The goal of the protocol is to provide those interacting with the patient step-by-step instructions on how to proceed once a potential trafficking victim has been identified.[137] Additionally, an initiative known as the HEAL Trafficking and Hope for Justice Protocol Toolkit is being made accessible to healthcare providers.[138] The goal of the toolkit is to provide a uniform medical response to trafficking. The toolkit combines known policies and procedures with tenets of trauma informed care. The toolkit is intended for the use of different healthcare providers such as community health workers, social workers, mental health counselors, nurses, and many others. A second initiative was taken on by the Centers for Disease Control. They have started to implement new fields of data collection through International Classification of Diseases (ICD) to better identify and categorize cases of sex trafficking. The new fields are ICD-10-CM codes. These are further categorized into T codes and Z codes. The T codes are further subcategorized into specific diagnoses that are used to indicate suspected and confirmed cases of trafficking. In addition, Z codes are also further categorized, but will be used for examination or observation of trafficking victims for other reasons.[139]
Approximately 87.8% of trafficking victims have come in contact with a healthcare professional either during or after their time of exploitation and labor. On 26 February 2018, the Office on Trafficking in Persons (OTIP) under the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services passed the SOAR to Health and Wellness Act of 2018.[140] SOAR which is an acronym which stands for Stop, Observe, Ask, and Respond is a training program which aims to properly equip professionals with the necessary resources and methods to identify victims of human trafficking. The training aids to help others recognize key indicators and characteristics of human trafficking as well as aid in key communication techniques that are effective for everyone involved. Response tactics can be key to identifying victims without causing harm and putting them in increased danger. The trainings also provide key communities with the support and resources they may need to bring attention to a crime which may be heavily impacting that area. The training can either be taken online or in person and can be personalized based the role of the professional. SOAR is available to anyone who may be interested in learning how to identify victims or situations of human trafficking in a healthcare setting. Trainings are available for social workers, medical and public health professionals, and even educators.
Physicians against the trafficking of humans (PATH[141]) is a program of the American Medical Women's Association (AMWA) that was started in 2014 with efforts to encourage medical professionals including physicians, residents, and medical students to become more aware of human trafficking.[142] The initiative was initially brought into discussion by Dr. Gayatri Devi in 2012, the president of AMWA at the time. She identified human sex trafficking as a key issue to be addressed. This discussion then progressed into forming a Human Trafficking Committee to handle the issue. PATH has since been creating content for hospitals and other medical facilities to use to educate professionals and students on the identification and advocacy for human trafficking. PATH has also been featured in many media outlets such as Politico[143] and TEDx.[144]
There are three main tactics social workers use to aid in the recovery of sex trafficking survivors: ecological, strengths-based, and victim-centered.[145] Using the ecological approach, the social worker evaluates their client's current environment and goals for reintegration into the community. By examining how justice systems, legal, and medical services impact their client, they can help them look into areas of future employment, gaining legal status, and reuniting with family. The strengths-based approach aims to create a bond of trust between the social worker and their client to build confidence as well as autonomy and leadership skills. Lastly, when using the victim-centered approach, social workers develop services and plans for the future specifically catered to their client's individual needs. These services are developed through a survivor's lens, which allows social workers to easily meet the needs of their clients. All three methods have proven to be effective in the recovery of sex trafficking survivors.[145]
Control tactics to facilitate intervention[]
There are many control tactics used by sex traffickers to control their victims, such as threats, physical and sexual assault, confiscating legitimate travel and immigration documents, and threats against the victim's family.[146] The University of Minnesota Duluth published the Power and Control Wheel to help target domestic abuse intervention.[147] The wheel identifies eight different mechanisms of power and control used on victims including: intimidation, emotional abuse, isolation, denying, blaming, and minimizing, sexual abuse, physical abuse, using privilege, economic abuse, coercion and threats. The wheel was developed to be used in counseling and education groups for victims of sex trafficking. It breaks down the tactics used against victims so the cycle of violence may become visible and stopped.
Another mechanism used to understand control is the BITE Model created by Steven Hassan. The BITE Model describes four categories of coercion used on sex trafficking victims: behavior control, information control, thought control, and emotional control.[148] He says that it is essential to understand the loss of identity victims experience to help them get out or recover from sex trafficking.
Anti-sex trafficking efforts[]
History of international legislation[]
International pressure to address trafficking in women and children became a growing part of the social Reform movement in the United States and Europe during the late nineteenth century. International legislation against the trafficking of women and children began with the conclusion of an international convention in 1901, and the International Agreement for the suppression of the White Slave Traffic in 1904. (The latter was revised in 1910.) The first formal international research into the issue was funded by American philanthropist John D. Rockefeller, through the American Bureau of Social Hygiene. The League of Nations, formed in 1919, took over as the international coordinator of legislation intended to end the trafficking of women and children. An international Conference on White Slave Traffic was held in 1921, attended by the 34 countries that ratified the 1901 and 1904 conventions.[149] Another convention against trafficking was ratified by League members in 1922, and like the 1904 international convention, this one required ratifying countries to submit annual reports on their progress in tackling the problem. Compliance with this requirement was not complete, although it gradually improved: in 1924, approximately 34 percent of the member countries submitted reports as required: this rose to 46 percent in 1929, 52 percent in 1933, and 61 percent in 1934.[150] The 1921 International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children was sponsored by the League of Nations. In 1923, a committee from the bureau was tasked with investigating trafficking in 28 countries, interviewing approximately 5,000 informants and analyzing information over two years before issuing its final report. This was the first formal report on trafficking in women and children to be issued by an official body.[149]
Efforts to combat sex trafficking are often linked to efforts against prostitution; however, this is often problematic in regards to legal recourse of sex trafficking victims. While prostitutes are nominally working by choice, sex trafficking victims do so under duress. Recognizing this, many states have passed legislation that allows sex trafficking victims amnesty under prostitution laws, however many fail to do so due to legal illiteracy and institutional prejudices.[151] As such, sex trafficking victims often risk legal persecution when alerting authorities to their situation.
Jane Addams was one of the most notable reformers during the Progressive Era, and refined the still early concepts of white slavery and sex work in her book A New Conscience and an Ancient Evil. She, among others, fought to classify all people coerced into prostitution as victims of sexual slavery, and believed that all sex work was sexual exploitation of women by more powerful men. Addams also believed that abolishing white slavery would bring more women into the suffrage movement. Alex Smolak, a physician, has studied many of the health risks faced by women in white slavery during the Progressive era. She says in her article titled "White Slavery, Whorehouse Riots, Venereal Disease, and Saving Women..."[152] that "The Progressive Era was a time when society was rapidly changing, with influences stemming from urbanization, industrialization, commercialization, immigration, and civilizing morality, all interacting with one another to fuel both prostitution and the anti-prostitution movement." Along with "The U.S. White Slave act of 1910", the "International Agreement for the Suppression of the White Slave Trade" was ratified by 13 nations, including the United States in 1904. Throughout the next 45 years the International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children was adopted by the League of Nations and the term white slavery was replaced by trafficking, the word used commonly today.
The first formal international research into the scope of the problem was funded by American philanthropist John D. Rockefeller, through the American Bureau of Social Hygiene.
United Nations[]
The first international protocol dealing with sex slavery was the 1949 UN Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and Exploitation of Prostitution of Others.[153] This convention followed the abolitionist idea of sex trafficking as incompatible with the dignity and worth of the human person. Serving as a model for future legislation, the 1949 UN Convention was not ratified by every country, but came into force in 1951. These early efforts led to the 2000 Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, mentioned above. These instruments contain the elements of the current international law on trafficking in humans.
In 2011, the United Nations reported that girl victims made up two-thirds of all trafficked children. Girls constituted 15 to 20 percent of the total number of all detected victims, whereas boys comprised about 10 percent. The UN report was based on official data supplied by 132 countries.[154]
In 2013, a resolution to create the World Day Against Trafficking in Persons was adopted by the United Nations.[155] The first World Day against Trafficking in Persons took place 30 July 2014, and the day is now observed every 30 July.[155]
Current international treaties include the Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage, and Registration of Marriages, entered into force in 1964.
In the United States[]
In 1910, the U.S. Congress passed the White Slave Traffic Act of 1910 (better known as the Mann Act), which made it a felony to transport women across state borders for the purpose of "prostitution or debauchery, or for any other immoral purpose". Its primary stated intent was to address prostitution, immorality, and human trafficking particularly where it was trafficking for the purposes of prostitution, but the ambiguity of "immorality" effectively criminalized interracial marriage and banned single women from crossing state borders for morally wrong acts. In 1914, of the women arrested for crossing state borders under this act, 70 percent were charged with voluntary prostitution. Once the idea of a sex slave shifted from a white woman to an enslaved woman from countries in poverty, the US began passing immigration acts to curtail aliens from entering the country to address this issue. (The government had other unrelated motives for the new immigration policies.) Several acts such as the Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and Immigration Act of 1924 reduced the number of emigrants from Europe and Asia from entering the United States. Following the increased restrictions of the 1920s (which were significantly relaxed by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 and Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965), human trafficking was not considered a major issue until the 1990s.[156][157][dubious ]
The Commercial Sex Act[158] makes it illegal to recruit, entice, obtain, provide, move or harbor a person or to benefit from such activities knowing that the person will be caused to engage in commercial sex acts where the person is under 18 or where force, fraud or coercion exists.[159][160]
Towards the end of President Clinton's administration,Congress passed the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (TVPA), intended to fight human trafficking globally.[33] Under the George W. Bush Administration, fighting sex trafficking within the scope of TVPA became a priority, framing human trafficking and sex trafficking as modern-day slavery.[33] The TVPA intends to strengthen services to victims of human trafficking and sex trafficking, increase law enforcement's ability to prosecute traffickers by incentivizing survivors to cooperate in the prosecution, increase education about human trafficking, and train law enforcement to identify human trafficking.[6][17][18] TVPA also has a mandate to collect funds for the treatment of sex trafficking victims that provided them with shelter, food, education, and financial grants. Internationally, the TVPA set standards for other countries to follow to receive aid from the U.S. to fight human trafficking.[33] TVPA also establishes two stipulations an applicant can meet to receive the benefits of a T-Visa. First, a trafficked victim must prove to being trafficked and second must submit to prosecution of his or her trafficker. While providing incentives for survivors of trafficking to assist in the prosecution process,[33] some scholars see these incentives as invalidating as they force the burden of proof to fall on the victim.[18] An example of an alternative can be found in Connecticut, where there are safe harbor laws for minor victims of sex trafficking. These laws provide immunity to the survivors and shifts the burden of proof away from the individual.[18] In general, incentivizing survivor cooperation in the prosecution process can be helpful considering the emotional manipulation and perceived romantic attachment that often stop survivors from accusing their traffickers or seeking help.[17][18][34] After TPVA's initial implementation, several agencies and task forces were created. The Act has also undergone multiple revisions and authorizations. In February 2000, the Department of Justice established a Trafficking in Persons and Worker Exploitation Task Force hotline that increased the number of trafficking cases that were opened and investigated.[33] In 2001, the Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons was established.[33] In both 2001 and 2003, new criminal statues were added to TVPA to make it easier to prosecute traffickers.[33] In 2003, TPVA was amended to provide access to civil remedies to trafficking cases to reduce a survivor's reliance on the criminal justice system.[33] The Act was reauthorized in 2003, 2005, 2008, and 2013.[17][33] The State Department publishes an annual Trafficking in Persons Report (TIP Reports), which examines the progress that the U.S. and other countries have made in destroying human trafficking businesses, arresting the traffickers, and supporting the victims.[33][161][162][163]
On the state level, sex trafficking legislation varies in terms of definitions and approaches.[18] California sex trafficking legislation offers legal protection for women so they can make choices outside the criminal justice system and pursue civil remedies.[15] California legislation also offers case worker privileges in sex trafficking cases.[15] In Connecticut, in addition to safe harbor laws for minor victims of sex trafficking, there is also an emphasis on educating employees in the hotel industry to identify sex trafficking.[18] The logic is that since trafficking activities often happen in hotels, employees need to be able to identify and report these occurrences. There are also arguments that the hotel industry needs to be offered incentives to report sex trafficking since they benefit financially from having guests in their hotels.[18] Another provision in Connecticut's sex trafficking legislation is increased punishment for purchasers of sex.[18]
In July 2019, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) conducted a month-long operation to detect and detain sex traffickers and recover child victims. More than 100 sex trafficking victims were successfully rescued across the United States, under the initiative called "Operation Independence Day". Besides, a total of 67 suspected traffickers were arrested.[164]
Council of Europe[]
Complementary protection is ensured through the Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse (signed in Lanzarote, 25 October 2007). The Convention entered into force on 1 July 2010.[165] As of November 2020, the Convention has been ratified by 47 states, with Ireland having signed but not yet ratified.[166] The goal of the Convention is to provide the framework for an independent and effective monitoring system that holds the member states accountable for addressing human trafficking and providing protecting to victims.[167] To monitor the implementation of this act, the Council of Europe established the Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA).[168] The Convention address the structure and purpose of GRETA and holds the group accountable to publish reports evaluating the measures taken by the states who have signed the Convention.[168]
Other government actions[]
Actions taken to combat human trafficking vary from government to government.[169] Some government actions include:
- introducing legislation specifically aimed at criminalizing human trafficking;
- developing co-operation between law enforcement agencies and non-government organizations (NGOs) of numerous nations; and
- raising awareness of the issue.
Raising awareness can take three forms. First, governments can raise awareness among potential victims, particularly in countries where human traffickers are active. Second, they can raise awareness amongst the police, social welfare workers and immigration officers to equip them to deal appropriately with the problem. And finally, in countries where prostitution is legal or semi-legal, they can raise awareness amongst the clients of prostitution so that they can watch for signs of human trafficking victims. Methods to raise general awareness often include television programs, documentary films, internet communications, and posters.[170]
Criticism of Prevention and Intervention Efforts[]
Many countries have come under criticism for inaction, or ineffective action. Criticisms include the failure of governments to properly identify and protect trafficking victims, enactment of immigration policies which potentially re-victimize trafficking victims, including by deporting them, and insufficient action in helping prevent vulnerable populations from becoming trafficking victims.[171][172] A particular criticism has been the reluctance of some countries to tackle trafficking for purposes other than sex.[173][174][175]
Studies of sex work and anti-sex trafficking efforts, intended to combat sex trafficking or provide support to victims, have raised concerns over the unintended effects of certain national and international policies, law enforcement strategies, and activist efforts on both sex-trafficked individuals and non-trafficked sex workers. For example, The United States' Tier 2 assessment of Japan on its 2004 TIP Report[176] encouraged the Japanese government to add additional constraints to its procedures and policies for obtaining an entertainer visa, sometimes used by migrant workers seeking employment at businesses within the sex industry.[177] However, these regulations provided opportunities for some third-party facilitators of these visas to exploit migrants while also limiting migrants' ability to leave employers with poor working conditions or overly restrictive practices, such as holding their passports or limiting their ability to leave the premises of the business.[26][177] Practices of law enforcement officers in some countries have also been criticized for incentivizing non-trafficked sex workers to declare themselves to be trafficking victims and enter aid and rehabilitation programs to avoid prison sentences for prostitution charges.[22]
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)[]
Many NGOs work on the issue of sex trafficking. One major NGO is the International Justice Mission (IJM). IJM is a U.S.-based non-profit human rights organization that combats human trafficking in developing countries in Latin America, Asia, and Africa. IJM states that it is a "human rights agency that brings rescue to victims of slavery, sexual exploitation, and other forms of violent oppression." It is a faith-based organization since its purported goal is to "restore to victims of oppression the things that God intends for them: their lives, their liberty, their dignity, the fruits of their labor."[178] The IJM receives over $900,000 from the US government.[179] The organization has two methods for rescuing victims: brothel raids in cooperation with local police, and "buy bust" operations in which undercover agencies pretend to purchase sex services from an underage girl. After the raid and rescue, the women are sent to rehabilitation programs run by NGOs (such as churches) or the government.
There are also survivor-led organizations that provide services to victims of exploitation and trafficking including Treasures, founded by Harmony (Dust) Grillo in 2003 and GEMS founded by Rachel Lloyd in 1998.
There are also national non-governmental organizations working on the issue of human trafficking, including sex trafficking. In Kenya, for example, Awareness Against Human Trafficking (HAART) works on ending all human trafficking in the country.[180] HAART has also participated in the UNANIMA International Stop the Demand campaign.[181]
In India, J. Walter Thompson Amsterdam has opened a school called School for Justice. Here, survivors of sex trafficking are educated to become lawyers. The entire program is expected to take five to six years for each girl to complete. The women will graduate with law degrees, with a special focus on commercial sexual exploitation cases. JWT hopes that one day they may become prosecutors, or even judges, empowered to combat the criminals who once exploited and abused them.[182]
NGOs often have the best of intentions when combating sex-trafficking. NGOs are often funded by the West and are implemented in countries that have a very different culture. Research shows that employees of the Western NGOs are slow to adapt to the culture of the community they are providing services to. This often leads to a disconnect between the NGO and the community. Employees of NGOs hold the responsibility of relaying the narrative of sex-trafficked people. This can create a hierarchical structure that makes the voice of Western NGOs as more legitimate than the voice of the people they are serving. Thus, reinforcing the essentialized notion of third-world women as backwards and other.[173][183][184]
Japan is a popular place for sex-trafficking. Japan has a long history with the trade of women for sex. For a good part of the countries history, sex work was legal in Japan. This makes it difficult for the government to decipher between legal sex work and illegal prostitution. This is where NGOs step in to assist the government. NGOs provide services in countries where the government policies are failing to combat a specific issue. However, in Japan it is difficult for NGOs focused on issues with women to receive local funding. This weak political support makes the work for NGOs in Japan much more difficult. Japan's lack of support for women's rights shows why the role of NGOs is so important in that country.[185]
Campaigns and initiatives[]
Public information campaigns are defined as a "government-directed and sponsored effort to communicate to the public or a segment of the public in order to achieve a policy result".[183][186]
In the past ten years, Spain has seen a surge of sex trafficking. In light of this crisis, social movements, organizations and government institutions have enacted policies like the Second National Plan against Sex Trafficking and Anti-Trafficking laws. Campaigns to fight against sex trafficking in Spain between 2008 and 2017 have been examined by researchers. Their research showed that many campaigns focus on the narrative of the victim as vulnerable and weak, rather than focusing on the actual crime of sex trafficking and the economic system that allows it to flourish. According to the research these narratives disempower sex trafficked people through repeated language of vulnerability and innocence. The researchers explain that the lack of information provided in these campaigns hinders their success. Campaigns will throw out huge numbers of women exploited into sex work but gives no context to the system that allows sex trafficking to flourish.[187]
In 1994, Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women was established to combat trafficking in women on any grounds. It is an alliance of more than 100 non-governmental organizations from Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, the Caribbean and North America.[188] The Demi and Ashton (DNA) Foundation was created by celebrity humanitarians Demi Moore and Ashton Kutcher in 2009 in their efforts to fight human trafficking (specifically focusing on sex trafficking of children) in the U.S. In September 2010, the pair announced the launch of their "Real Men Don't Buy Girls" campaign to combat child sex trafficking alongside other Hollywood stars and technology companies such as Microsoft, Twitter, and Facebook. "Real Men Don't Buy Girls" is based on the idea that high-profile men speaking out against child sex trafficking can help reduce the demand for young girls in the commercial sex trade. The popular TV channel MTV started a campaign to combat sex trafficking. The initiative called MTV EXIT (End Exploitation and Trafficking) is a multimedia initiative produced by MTV EXIT Foundation (formerly known as the MTV Europe Foundation) to raise awareness and increase prevention of human trafficking.[189][190]
Another campaign is the A21 Campaign, Abolishing Injustice in the 21st Century, which focuses on addressing human trafficking through a holistic approach.[191] They provide potential victims with the education and valuable information on how to best reduce their likelihood of being trafficked through strategies that reduce their vulnerability. The organization also provides safe environments for victims and runs restoration programs in their aftercare facilities.[191] In addition, they provide legal council and representation to victims so they can prosecute their traffickers. Another key component of the campaign is to help influence legislation to enact more comprehensive laws that place more traffickers in prison.[191] The Campaign works in the United States, Peru, the Netherlands, Romania, Thailand, South Africa, and India to help victims of human trafficking. In 2013 alone, they provided 4,500 services to 2,062 individuals.[192] The vast majority of victims who received assistance were from the Netherlands and the number of victims served increased by 42 percent from 2012. The campaign allocates the majority of their funds to providing victims health and nutritional care and education. Not for Sale provides a safe shelter for victims and empowers them with life skills and job training.[192] This helps trafficked individuals re-enter into the workforce through a dignified form of work. In the organization's 2013 Annual Impact Report, it was determined that 75 percent of the victims had been sexually exploited.[193]
While globalization fostered new technologies that may exacerbate sex trafficking, technology can also be used to assist law enforcement and anti-trafficking efforts. A study was done on online classified ads surrounding the Super Bowl. A number of reports have noticed increase in sex trafficking during previous years of the Super Bowl.[194] For the 2011 Super Bowl held in Dallas, Texas, the Backpage website for the Dallas area experienced a 136 percent increase on the number of posts in the Adult section that Sunday. Typically, Sundays were known to be the day of the week with the lowest number of posts in the Adult section. Researchers analyzed the most salient terms in these online ads and found that most commonly used words suggested that many escorts were traveling across state lines to Dallas specifically for the Super Bowl. Also, the self-reported ages were higher than usual which conveys that an older population of sex workers were drawn to the event, but since these are self-reported the data is not reliable. Despite a lot of media hype about a supposed spike in sex trafficking surrounding the Super Bowl, academics and anti-trafficking campaigners have said this is largely a myth. They say that while the commercial sex market does grow modestly during large events, sex trafficking is a year-round problem.[195][196] Twitter was another social networking platform studied for detecting sex trafficking. Digital tools can be used to narrow the pool of sex trafficking cases, albeit imperfectly and with uncertainty.[197]
'End Demand'[]
The term "End Demand" refers to anti-sex trafficking strategies that focus on the "Johns", the sex buyers. A common strategy is to make it a crime to buy sex, whether consensual or not. End Demand is very popular in some countries, including the United States and Canada.[198] In the 1990s, for example, specific media attention was paid to sex trafficking of women outside the United States. The feminist reaction to this at the time was to not just call for social services for trafficked people but also for harsher punishments for Johns. Proponents of the End Demand strategy support initiatives such as "John's schools" to "rehabilitate" the Johns, increased arrests of johns, and public shaming (e.g. billboards and websites that publicly name johns who were caught).[198][199][200] John's Schools were pioneered in San Francisco in 1995 and now used in many cities across the U.S. as well as other countries such as the UK and Canada. Some compare John's Schools programs to driver's safety courses, because first offenders can pay a fee to attend class(es) on the harms of prostitution, and upon completion, the charges against the john will be dropped. Another initiative in line with the End Demand strategy is the cross-country tour "Ignite the Road to Justice," launched by the 2011 Miss Canada, Tara Teng. Teng's initiative circulates a petition to end the demand for commercial sex that drives prostitution and sex trafficking. End Demand efforts also include large-scale public awareness campaigns. Campaigns were started in Sweden, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Atlanta, Georgia. Massachusetts and Rhode Island also had legislative efforts that criminalized prostitution and increased end demand efforts by targeting Johns.[198]
The Atlanta campaign ran from 2006 to 2008 and was titled "Dear John". It ran ads in local media reaching out to potential Johns to discourage them from buying sex. The ads mimicked a break-up letter to John.
Critics of the Dear John campaign focus on the ‘male demand’ aspect of the campaign and find that this style of campaign reinforces gendered, racialized and sexualized assumptions about Johns and trafficked women. The historical discourse in the U.S. concerning Johns is racially charged. An example of this racialized nature is associated with the temptations of Thai massage parlors. Despite these objections, lawmakers have found this messaging morally compelling. The campaign was run by locals of Atlanta. Advocates for the campaign informed citizens through media that young women were the ones being arrested while the Johns were not.[187] Contextual analysis research has shown the essentialized nature of the campaign. The Dear John campaign posters define women in terms of their relationship to sex. They also only depict white girls in the images inferring that the only victims worth caring about are young white and innocent.[187]
It is interesting to note that there are no images of Johns in the campaign posters. A plausible explanation for this would be an effort by the campaign to widen the scope of the messaging and to avoid racial stereotypes. Conversely, the racial stereotypes of trafficked girls is made clear. This excludes a majority of victims who do not identify with the image that the poster conveys. Lawmakers in Atlanta were fully behind the campaign as a statement to the public that they will not tolerate the purchasing of sex. These public statements are in stark contrast to the actual amount of funding that the city gave to organizations who provide housing and services for victims. The city did no research into the effectiveness of the campaign and therefore there is no data on its actual impact on the city. It is also important to note that the campaign ads were only in English and many people are not familiar with the Dear John reference. Lawmakers believe that the campaign was effective in bringing awareness to the issue and therefore shaped public opinion and policy.[187]
Recognition of males in the global fight against trafficking[]
The lack of conversation, advocacy, legal/social support services, and academic work around the sexual exploitation of men and boys can be traced to larger social discourses surrounding male sexuality, dominance, and behavior. Media representations of masculinity and sexual dominance contribute to the idea that men cannot be victims, especially in regards to sex-related crimes. The lack of public knowledge and attention to male victimhood and vulnerability is strongly reflected in the quality of services and strength of legal frameworks available to male victims of sex trafficking .[201] Experts describe the "perceived agency and resilience in young males" to be a strong force in deterring male victims from seeking the support they need, and discouraging male-inclusive anti-trafficking service and support networks from forming in the first place.[202] Within the spare support frameworks for male victims that do exist, the specific vulnerabilities of different populations in different areas around the world—regarding nationality and migration status, sexual orientation, drug use, socio-economic status, health status, family structure, and more—are often unaddressed, leaving crucial groups' needs unmet. The double stigma that surrounds male victims of sex trafficking, involving homosexuality and sex work more broadly—makes it incredibly difficult for male victims to come forward and seek help, or even to self-organize. Some scholars report that male victims have also faced higher rates of police violence and brutality than female victims in regards to contact with law enforcement.[203]
Criminalizing and legalizing prostitution[]
Laws regarding the purchase and sale of voluntary and involuntary sex vary greatly across the developed world. Their effects on sex trafficking are difficult to discern. Proponents of various forms of criminalization, legalization, or regulation of prostitution, may all argue their model decreases sex trafficking.[204]
The Dutch model of legalization and regulation and the Swedish model of criminalizing purchasers and pimps but not prostitutes are often discussed. The difference of these models casts the prevention of trafficking against the rights of voluntary sex workers and purchasers. It is argued that a hybrid model of licensing sex workers and criminalizing the purchase of unlicensed sex would reduce trafficking without crushing civil rights.[204]
2017 Giving Day[]
Numerous international organizations have partnered to create an anti-human trafficking Giving Day to raise awareness and funds on July, 30th 2017. This is the day designated by the United Nations as the World Day against Trafficking in Persons. The Giving Day is being hosted by Charidy.com, a crowdfunding platform for non-profits.[205]
The General Assembly in 2010, adopted the Global Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons, encouraging Governments around the world to undergo drastic measures in order defeat human trafficking. The goal was to put the fight against human trafficking into the United Nation's programmes to strengthen positive development and security around the world. A main section of the plan is to place a United Nations Trust Fund for the women and children who fell victim of trafficking. The Trust Fund in the plan ensures to assist and protect the victims of trafficking through grants to certified NGOs. In the future, the goal is to make the victims a priority who are come were victims and had issues with migration. It also places a focus on the aid to victims who were trafficked by their perpetrator for the goal of sexual relations, organ removal, forced begging, forced criminality, and emerging exploitative reasons.
The General Assembly in the year 2013, gathered a meeting to go over the world's plan of action. Numerous states also declared 30 July as the World Day against Trafficking in Persons. They came to the conclusion that day of remembrance and awareness was crucial to remember the victims, the right's they possess and their protection.[206]
Buying Sex Is A Crime[]
"Buying Sex Is A Crime" is a slogan used by anti human trafficking and abolitionist groups. The first known public use of the slogan was by thetraffickedhuman.org.[207] in 2016 on a billboard campaign in metro Vancouver, British Columbia.[208] thetraffickedhuman.org is a coalition that works to end the exploitation of women, youth, and girls.[209]
The slogan with the same billboard artwork was also used by buyingsexisacrime.ca in 2017 throughout Canada including Edmonton, Alberta.[210] The slogan was also picked up by the Edmonton Police's own awareness initiative.[210] In 2018, a new campaign was launched at buyingsexisacrime.org sponsored by the Vancouver Collective Against Sexual Exploitation. The collective is a Vancouver, British Columbia, based abolitionist group of lawyers, judges, social workers, professionals, teachers, activists and advocates working to end sexual exploitation.[211]
See also[]
- Sexual exploitation
- Human trafficking
- Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children
- Transnational efforts to prevent human trafficking
- Migrant sex work
- Sex tourism
- Karayuki-san
- Forced prostitution
- Exploitation of labour
- Trafficking of children
- Child laundering
- Prostitution
- People smuggling
References[]
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Kara, Siddharth (2009). Sex Trafficking: Inside the Business of Modern Slavery. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231139618. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Hammond, Gretchen; McGlone, Mandy (22 March 2014). "Entry, Progression, Exit, and Service Provision for Survivors of Sex Trafficking: Implications for Effective Interventions". Global Social Welfare. 1 (4): 157–168. doi:10.1007/s40609-014-0010-0., citing Maria Beatriz Alvarez, Edward J. Alessi (May 2012). "Human trafficking is more than sex trafficking and prostitution: implications for social work". Affilia. 27 (2): 142–152. doi:10.1177/0886109912443763. S2CID 59404870.
- ^ "ILO 2012 Global estimate of forced labour – Executive summary" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
- ^ Odhiambo, Agnes & Barr, Heather. (2 Aug 2019). "Opinion:Trafficking survivors are being failed the world over." Al Jazeera website Retrieved 4 August 2019.
- ^ International Labour Organization. (19 September 2017). Press Release:40 million in modern slavery and 152 million in child labour around the world. International Labour Organization website Retrieved 4 August 2019.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Tiefenbrun, Susan (2002). "The Saga of Susannah A U.S. Remedy for Sex Trafficking in Women: The Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000". Utah Law Review. 107.
- ^ "Human Trafficking by the Numbers". (7 January 2017). Human Rights First website Retrieved 2 December 2018.
- ^ Daffron, Joshua W. (Dec 2011). "Combating Human Trafficking: Evolution of State Legislation and the Policies of the United Kingdom and France." Thesis, M.A. Monterey, Calif.:Department of National Security Affairs. Naval Postgraduate School. Defense Technical Information Center website Retrieved 2 December 2018.
- ^ Tiziana Luise. (2005). "Are human rights becoming burdensome for our economies? The role of slavery-like practices in the development of world economics and in the context of modern society," Rivista Internazionale Di Scienze Sociali, 113(3): 473.
- ^ nancy.cao. "UNODC – Human Trafficking". www.unodc.org. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
- ^ Jump up to: a b diana.teixeira. "FAQs". www.unodc.org. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
- ^ ZHANG, SHELDON X.; SPILLER, MICHAEL W.; FINCH, BRIAN KARL; QIN, YANG (2014). "Estimating Labor Trafficking among Unauthorized Migrant Workers in San Diego". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 653: 65–86. doi:10.1177/0002716213519237. JSTOR 24541775. S2CID 145801614.
- ^ "Major Forms of Trafficking in Persons". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Levy, Jay; Jakobsson, Pye (19 February 2013). "Abolitionist feminism as patriarchal control: Swedish understandings of prostitution and trafficking". Dialectical Anthropology. 37 (2): 333–340. doi:10.1007/s10624-013-9309-y. ISSN 0304-4092. S2CID 143964789.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Cavalieri, S (2011). "Between Victim and Agent: A Third-Way Feminist Account of Trafficking for Sex Work". Indiana Law Journal. 86 (4): 1409–1458.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Weitzer, Ronald (1 June 2015). "Researching Prostitution and Sex Trafficking Comparatively". Sexuality Research and Social Policy. 12 (2): 81–91. doi:10.1007/s13178-014-0168-3. ISSN 1553-6610. S2CID 14338143.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Elrod, J (2015). "Filling the Gap: Refining Sex Trafficking Legislation to Address the Problem of Pimping". Vanderbilt Law Review. 3: 961–996.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Forbes, K. M. (2018). "Highways and Byways: Following Connecticut's Path in Creating Holistic Domestic Sex Trafficking Laws in Indiana". Indiana Law Review. 51: 499–523. doi:10.18060/4806.1195.
- ^ Reeves, Elizabeth (2 September 2015). "A Synthesis of the Literature on Trauma-Informed Care". Issues in Mental Health Nursing. 36 (9): 698–709. doi:10.3109/01612840.2015.1025319. ISSN 0161-2840. PMID 26440873. S2CID 36312879.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Monroe, Jacquelyn (27 September 2005). "Women in Street Prostitution: The Result of Poverty and the Brunt of Inequity". Journal of Poverty. 9 (3): 69–88. doi:10.1300/J134v09n03_04. ISSN 1087-5549. S2CID 143535787.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Outshoorn, J (2005). "The Political Debates on Prostitution and Trafficking of Women". Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society. 12 (1): 141–155. doi:10.1093/sp/jxi004. S2CID 144674778.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Kay, Hoang, Kimberly (11 February 2015). Dealing in desire : Asian ascendancy, Western decline, and the hidden currencies of global sex work. Oakland, California. ISBN 9780520960688. OCLC 899739300.
- ^ Jeffreys, Sheila (July 2009). "Prostitution, trafficking and feminism: An update on the debate". Women's Studies International Forum. 32 (4): 316–320. doi:10.1016/j.wsif.2009.07.002. ISSN 0277-5395.
- ^ Eichert, David. "'It Ruined My Life: FOSTA, Male Escorts, and the Construction of Sexual Victimhood in American Politics" (PDF). Virginia Journal of Social Policy & the Law. 26 (3): 201–245.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Knight, K. R. (2012). "The Public Life of Sex Work". Western Humanities Review. 66 (3): 55–76.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Sealing., Cheng (2010). On the move for love : migrant entertainers and the U.S. military in South Korea. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780812206920. OCLC 794700706.
- ^ "A personal choice". The Economist. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Dempsey, Michelle Madden; Hoyle, Carolyn; Bosworth, Mary (2012). "Defining Sex Trafficking in International and Domestic Law: Mind the Gaps". Emory International Law Review. Villanova Law/Public Policy Research Paper No. 2013-3036. 26 (1).
- ^ "United Nations Treaty Collection".
- ^ United Nations (2012). "Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing The United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime". Retrieved 17 March 2015.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Lew, Candace (July 2012). "Sex Trafficking of Domestic Minors in Phoenix, Arizona: A Research Project" (PDF). Retrieved 17 March 2015.
- ^ United States Government. "Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000" (PDF). U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Tiefenbrun, Susan W. (2006). "Updating the Domestic and International Impact of the U.S. Victims of Trafficking Protection Act of 2000: Does Law Deter Crime?". Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law. 38 (2): 249–280.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Gibbs, D. A.; Walters, J. L.; Lutnick, A.; Miller, S; Kluckman, M (2015). "Services to Domestic Minor Victims of Sex Trafficking: Opportunities of Engagement and Support". Children and Youth Services Review. 54: 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.04.003 – via Elseiver.
- ^ Greene, J M; Ennett, S T; Ringwalt, C L (1999). "Prevalence and correlates of survival sex among runaway and homeless youth". American Journal of Public Health. 89 (9): 1406–1409. doi:10.2105/AJPH.89.9.1406. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 1508758. PMID 10474560.
- ^ "Sex Trafficking of Women in the United States." International Sex Trafficking of Women & Children: Understanding the Global Epidemic, by Leonard Territo, Looseleaf Law Publications, Inc., 2015, pp. 1–13.
- ^ Major global hotel brands accused of profiting from sex trafficking The Guardian 9 December 2019
- ^ Jump up to: a b c "Shared Hope International: Rapid Assessment" (PDF).
- ^ Jump up to: a b "Human Trafficking and the Internet* (*and Other Technologies, too) – Judicial Division". Retrieved 29 September 2016.
- ^ "Truckers Take The Wheel In Effort To Halt Sex Trafficking". Retrieved 29 September 2016.
- ^ "TOP FIVE: Hot Spots for Human Trafficking – The A21 Campaign". Retrieved 29 September 2016.
- ^ "How the internet and social media impact sex trafficking". 7 April 2014. Retrieved 29 September 2016.
- ^ Human Trafficking Online: The Role of Social Networking Sites and Online Classifieds
- ^ "Primary Research: Diffusion of Technology-Facilitated Human Trafficking · Technology & Human Trafficking". Retrieved 29 September 2016.
- ^ Scott, Eric. "Careless use of social media increases human trafficking rate in Florida". Retrieved 29 September 2016.
- ^ Walker-Rodriguez, Amanda; Hill, Rodney (March 2011). "Human Sex Trafficking". FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
- ^ Alyson Warhurst; Cressie Strachan; Zahed Yousuf; Siobhan Tuohy-Smith (August 2011). "Trafficking A global phenomenon with an exploration of India through maps" (PDF). Maplecroft. p. 51. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
- ^ "Research based on case studies of victims of trafficking in human beings in 3 EU Member States, i.e. Belgium, Italy and The Netherlands" (PDF). Commission of the European Communities, DG Justice & Home Affairs. 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2008. Retrieved 5 October 2008.
- ^ "Media Conference for Announcing Role of Dewi Hughes 28 May 2003" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 March 2006. Retrieved 22 March 2011.
- ^ "Rapid Assessment on Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking" (PDF). Shared Hope. 2015.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "National Gang Report 2015". Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved 4 May 2017.
- ^ "Rapid Assessment on Domestic Sex Trafficking" (PDF). Shared Hope.
- ^ "Innocence Lost: Gangs and Sex Trafficking | National Sexual Violence Resource Center (NSVRC)". www.nsvrc.org. Archived from the original on 21 April 2017. Retrieved 4 May 2017.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "Gang – Involved Sex Trafficking". National Human Trafficking Hotline. 28 September 2014. Retrieved 4 May 2017.
- ^ Lederer, Laura. "Sold for Sex: The Link between Street Gangs and Trafficking in Persons" (PDF). The Protection Project Journal of Human Rights and Civil Society.
- ^ Fox, Jan (2014). "Into Hell: Gang-Prostitution of Minors". Washington and Lee Journal of Civil Rights and Social Justice. 20.
- ^ "Unbranded: Sex Trafficking Tattoo Removal – VICE Shorties – VICE Video". VICE Video. Retrieved 4 May 2017.
- ^ "Helping Survivors of Sex Trafficking – United Way Fresno and Madera Counties". United Way Fresno and Madera Counties. 8 February 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2017.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "Forced Marriage in the United States – Human Trafficking CenterHuman Trafficking Center". humantraffickingcenter.org.
- ^ Kara, Siddharth (2010). Sex Trafficking: An Overview. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 1–44. ISBN 9780231139618.
- ^ Brock, J. Brock, M. (Director). (2013). Red Light, Green Light [Video file]. Media Education Foundation.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "IJM Seeks to End Cybersex Trafficking of Children and #RestartFreedom this Cyber Monday and Giving Tuesday". PR Newswire. 28 November 2016.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c "Cybersex Trafficking". IJM. 2020.
- ^ "Cyber-sex trafficking: A 21st century scourge". CNN. 18 July 2013.
- ^ "Senator warns of possible surge in child cybersex traffic". The Philippine Star. 13 April 2020.
- ^ "Duterte's drug war and child cybersex trafficking". The ASEAN Post. 18 October 2019.
- ^ "Norwegian national, partner nabbed; 4 rescued from cybersex den". Manila Bulletin. 1 May 2020.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "Cheap tech and widespread internet access fuel rise in cybersex trafficking". NBC News. 30 June 2018.
- ^ "Senate to probe rise in child cybersex trafficking". The Philippine Star. 11 November 2019.
- ^ "Global taskforce tackles cybersex child trafficking in the Philippines". Reuters. 15 April 2019.
- ^ "Webcam slavery: tech turns Filipino families into cybersex child traffickers". Reuters. 17 June 2018.
- ^ "How the internet fuels sexual exploitation and forced labour in Asia". South China Morning Post. 2 May 2019.
- ^ "1st Session, 42nd Parliament, Volume 150, Issue 194". Senate of Canada. 18 April 2018.
- ^ "Cybersex trafficking spreads across Southeast Asia, fuelled by internet boom. And the law lags behind". South China Morning Post. 11 September 2019.
- ^ "BBC – Ethics – Forced Marriages: Introduction". bbc.co.uk.
- ^ "Forced and servile marriage in the context of human trafficking". aic.gov.au. 3 November 2017.
- ^ "Child Trafficking for Forced Marriage" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 July 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2014.
- ^ "Forced Marriage and the Many Faces of Human Trafficking". theahafoundation.org.
- ^ "Child Marriages: 39,000 Every Day – More than 140 million girls will marry between 2011 and 2020". www.un.org. 7 March 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2018.
- ^ Secretariat., Commonwealth (2004). Gender and Human Rights in the Commonwealth Some Critical Issues for Action in the Decade 2005–2015. Commonwealth Secretariat. ISBN 9781848598553. OCLC 1032573761.
- ^ Copley, Lauren (31 October 2014). "What does policy have to do with it? The political economy of Latino sex trafficking in the United States". Crime, Law and Social Change. 62 (5): 571–584. doi:10.1007/s10611-014-9542-6. ISSN 0925-4994. S2CID 143668692.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Marie., Matusek, Karmen. Under the surface of sex trafficking : socio-economic and cultural perpetrators of gender-based violence in India. OCLC 994684683.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Nikolic-Ristanovic, Vesna (2003). Sex Trafficking: The Impact of War, Militarism and Globalization in Eastern Europe. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor: Michigan Feminist Studies. OCLC 688491916.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Duong, Kim Anh (2012). "Human Trafficking in a Globalized World: Gender Aspects of the Issue and Anti-trafficking Politics". Journal of Research in Gender Studies. 2: 48–65. ProQuest 1272096082.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Tiefenbrun, Susan (2002). "The Saga of Susannah A U.S. Remedy for Sex Trafficking in Women: The Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000" (PDF). Utah Law Review.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Chuang, Janie (2006). "Beyond a Snapshot: Preventing Human Trafficking in the Global Economy". Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies. 13 (1): 137–163. doi:10.1353/gls.2006.0002. ISSN 1543-0367.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Dong-Hoon, Seol (January 2004). "International Sex Trafficking in Women in Korea: Its Causes, Consequences and Countermeasures". Asian Journal of Women's Studies. 10 (2): 7–47. doi:10.1080/12259276.2004.11665968. ISSN 1225-9276. S2CID 155642740.
- ^ "Recognize the Recognize". Polaris. 12 October 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
- ^ "The Victims". www.traffickingresourcecenter.org. National Human Trafficking Resource Center. 25 September 2014. Retrieved 22 January 2015.
- ^ Rao, Smriti; Presenti, Christina (2012). "Understanding Human Trafficking Origin: A Cross-Country Empirical Analysis". Feminist Economics. 18 (2): 231–263 [233–234]. doi:10.1080/13545701.2012.680978. S2CID 154067551.
- ^ "Sex Trafficking". Polaris. 13 October 2015. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ O’Reilly, Caroline, ed. (2012), ILO Global Estimate of Forced Labour: Results and methodology (PDF), Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office, p. 14, ISBN 9789221264125, retrieved 7 August 2017
- ^ Greenbaum, Jordan (2020). "A Public Health Approach to Global Child Sex Trafficking". Annual Review of Public Health. 41: 481–497. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040119-094335. PMID 32237991.
- ^ Mehlman-Orozco, Kimberly (2015). "Safe Harbor Legislation for Juvenile Victims of Sex Trafficking: A Myopic View of Improvements in Practice". Social Inclusion. 3: 52–62. doi:10.17645/si.v3i1.56.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Zimmerman, Cathy (2003). "The health risks and consequences of trafficking in women and adolescents: Findings from a European study". London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Commonwealth Secretariat (2004). Gender and Human Rights in the Commonwealth: Some critical issues for action in the decade 2005–2015. Commonwealth Secretariat. ISBN 9781848598553. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
- ^ "South Africa". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
- ^ Zhang, Sheldon X.; Pacheco-McEvoy, Rodrigo & Campos, Roxanna (November 2011). "Sex trafficking in Latin America: dominant discourse, empirical paucity, and promising research". Global Crime. 13 (1): 22–41. doi:10.1080/17440572.2011.632504. S2CID 143936721. Abstract.
- ^ "How a Mexican family became sex traffickers". Thomson Reuters Foundation. 30 November 2017.
- ^ Grillo, Ioan (31 July 2013). "The Mexican Drug Cartels' Other Business: Sex Trafficking". Time.
- ^ "Tenancingo: the small town at the dark heart of Mexico's sex-slave trade". The Guardian. 4 April 2015.
- ^ "DOJ: Mexican Sex Trafficking Organization Uses Southern Border to Smuggle Victims". People's Pundit Daily. 7 January 2019.
- ^ "Human trafficking survivors find hope in Mexico City". Deseret News. 17 July 2015.
- ^ "Human trafficking survivor: I was raped 43,200 times". CNN. 20 September 2017.
- ^ Gender and Human Rights in the Commonwealth: Some critical issues for action in the decade 2005–2015. Commonwealth Secretariat. 2004. ISBN 9781848598553. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
- ^ "Gender and Human Rights in the Commonwealth". Commonwealth Secretariat.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Iaccino, Ludovica (6 February 2014). "Top Five Countries with Highest Rates of Child Prostitution". International Business Times. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
- ^ Enos, Olivia (20 November 2014). "Nearly Two-Thirds of Human Trafficking Victims Are from Asia". The Daily Signal. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
- ^ "Facts and Statistics | SHE Rescue Home". www.sherescuehome.org. Archived from the original on 27 August 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
- ^ john. "Asian Century Institute – Human trafficking and smuggling in Asia". asiancenturyinstitute.com. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (23 June 2020). "Trafficking in persons in Canada, 2018". www150.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c "The Trafficked: How sex trafficking works in Canada". Retrieved 9 February 2021.
- ^ "Global Slavery Index". www.globalslaveryindex.org. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
- ^ "Canada | Global Slavery Index". www.globalslaveryindex.org. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d "About Human Trafficking". www.publicsafety.gc.ca. 7 December 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
- ^ Sethi, Anupriya (2007). "Domestic Sex Trafficking of Aboriginal Girls in Canada: Issues and Implications". First Peoples Child & Family Review: A Journal on Innovation and Best Practices in Aboriginal Child Welfare Administration, Research, Policy & Practice. 3 (3): 57–71. doi:10.7202/1069397ar. ISSN 1708-489X.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Durisin, Elya M.; Meulen, Emily van der (21 April 2020). "Sexualized Nationalism and Federal Human Trafficking Consultations: Shifting Discourses on Sex Trafficking in Canada". Journal of Human Trafficking. 0: 1–22. doi:10.1080/23322705.2020.1743604. ISSN 2332-2705.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Canada, Women and Gender Equality (29 July 2020). "Government of Canada invests $19 million to reduce human trafficking and support those most impacted". gcnws. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d "The Canadian Centre To End Human Trafficking". Retrieved 9 February 2021.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Prevention, Victim Services and Crime. "Human Trafficking – National List of Organizations – Province of British Columbia". www2.gov.bc.ca. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c "Traffick Stop". Covenant House Toronto. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
- ^ "Trafficking Routes". www.stopvaw.org. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
- ^ Johanna Granville, "From Russia without Love: The 'Fourth Wave' of Global Human Trafficking", Demokratizatsiya, vol. 12, no. 1 (Winter 2004): p. 148.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c "Trafficking harms 30,000 in EU – most in sex trade". BBC. BBC. 17 October 2014. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
- ^ "Moldova". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
- ^ Nemtsova, Anna (30 January 2017). "Can Moldova's Battered Teens Be Saved From Human Traffickers?". The Daily Beast. Retrieved 3 May 2017.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c "Human Trafficking & Modern-day Slavery – Moldova". gvnet.com. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
- ^ "Iran".
- ^ Jump up to: a b "Human Trafficking & Modern-day Slavery – Iran". gvnet.com. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Uncensored, Reporters (19 September 2009). "Iran's Dark Secret: Child Prostitution and Sex Slaves". Huffington Post. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
- ^ "Combating Trafficking for Prostitution in Israel". Office of the National Anti-Trafficking Coordinator. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
- ^ "2019 Trafficking in Persons Report: Israel". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
- ^ Hacker, Daphna. "Is the Trafficking Victims Protection Act a Transnational Success? Lessons from Israel's Strategic Compliance" (PDF). Tel Aviv University Faculty of Law. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
- ^ "Trafficking for the Purposes of Prostitution and Sexual Exploitation". Israel Ministry of Justice. Retrieved 23 February 2020.
- ^ "Educating Healthcare Professionals on Human Trafficking". Pediatric Emergency Care. 30 December 2014. PMC 4392380.
- ^ "What to look for in a healthcare setting". National Human Trafficking Hotline. 2016. Retrieved 31 October 2018.
- ^ "Framework for a Human Trafficking Protocol in Healthcare settings". National Human Trafficking Hotline. 2016. Retrieved 31 October 2018.
- ^ "HEAL Trafficking". Retrieved 5 October 2018.
- ^ "CDC Adds New Human Trafficking Data Collection Fields for Healthcare Providers". National Human Trafficking Hotline. 14 June 2016. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
- ^ "SOAR to Health and Wellness Act". Energy and Commerce Committee. 31 January 2017. Retrieved 5 November 2018.
- ^ PATH
- ^ "Physicians Against Trafficking of Humans". AWMA. 2018. Retrieved 5 November 2018.
- ^ Politico
- ^ TEDx
- ^ Jump up to: a b Busch-Armendariz, Noël; Nsonwu, Maura Busch; Heffron, Laurie Cook (January 2014). "A kaleidoscope: The role of the social work practitioner and the strength of social work theories and practice in meeting the complex needs of people trafficked and the professionals that work with them". International Social Work. 57 (1): 7–18. doi:10.1177/0020872813505630. ISSN 0020-8728. S2CID 145455649.
- ^ "Sex Trafficking Into the United States: A Literature Review". Criminal Justice Review. 2006. doi:10.1177/0734016806290136.
- ^ "What is the Duluth Model?". Domestic Abuse Intervention Program. 2017. Retrieved 31 October 2018.
- ^ "Steven Hassan's Human Trafficking BITE Model". Freedom of Mind Resource Center. 2014. Retrieved 31 October 2018.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Berkovitch, Nitzka (1999). From Motherhood to Citizenship: Women's Rights and International Organizations. JHU Press. p. 75. ISBN 9780801860287.
- ^ Berkovitch, Nitzka (1999). From Motherhood to Citizenship: Women's Rights and International Organizations. JHU Press. p. 81. ISBN 9780801860287.
- ^ Barnard, Alyssa M. (1 January 2014). ""the Second Chance They Deserve": Vacating Convictions of Sex Trafficking Victims". Columbia Law Review. 114 (6): 1463–1501. JSTOR 23932264.
- ^ Smolak, A (2013). "White slavery, whorehouse riots, venereal disease, and saving women: historical context of prostitution interventions and harm reduction in New York City during the Progressive Era". Soc Work Public Health. 28 (5): 496–508. doi:10.1080/19371918.2011.592083. PMC 3703872. PMID 23805804.
- ^ "Convention For The Suppression Of The Traffic In Persons And Of The Exploitation Of The Prostitution Of Others" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
- ^ UNODC. "Global Report on Trafficking in Persons 2012" (PDF). United Nations publication, Sales No. E.13.IV.1. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "Feminist Wire Daily Newsbriefs: U.S. and Global News Coverage". Retrieved 29 September 2016.
- ^ Candidate, Jo Doezema PhD "Loose women or lost women? The re-emergence of the myth of white slavery in contemporary discourses of trafficking in women." Gender issues 18.1 (1999): 23–50.
- ^ Donovan, Brian. White slave crusades: race, gender, and anti-vice activism, 1887–1917. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2006.
- ^ 18 U.S.C. § 1591
- ^ "Stop Sex Trafficking". Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 10 March 2010.
- ^ "Victims Of Trafficking And Violence Protection Act of 2000" (PDF).
- ^ Soderlund, Gretchen. "Running from the rescuers: new US crusades against sex trafficking and the rhetoric of abolition." nwsa Journal 17.3 (2005): 64–87.
- ^ Feingold, David A. "Human trafficking." Foreign Policy (2005): 26–32.
- ^ Horning, A.; Thomas, C.; Henninger, A. M.; Marcus, A. (2014). "The Trafficking in Persons Report: a game of risk". International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice. 38 (3): 257–280. doi:10.1080/01924036.2013.861355. S2CID 167966846.
- ^ "Operation Independence Day". Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved 6 August 2019.
- ^ "Liste complète". Retrieved 29 September 2016.
- ^ "Full list". Treaty Office.
- ^ Council of Europe (2005). Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (PDF). Council of Europe. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Council of Europe. "About GRETA". Council of Europe. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
- ^ "Cho, Seo-Young, Axel Dreher and Eric Neumayer (2011), The Spread of Anti-trafficking Policies – Evidence from a New Index, Cege Discussion Paper Series No. 119, Georg-August-University of Goettingen, Germany" (PDF). Retrieved 13 November 2011.
- ^ "Global TV Campaign on Human Trafficking". UN Office on Drugs and Crime. 2003. Archived from the original on 6 October 2007. Retrieved 5 October 2008.
- ^ Brennan, Denise; Plambech, Sine (29 April 2018). "Editorial: Moving Forward—Life after trafficking". Anti-Trafficking Review (10). doi:10.14197/atr.201218101. ISSN 2287-0113.
- ^ Yea, Sallie (27 April 2017). "Editorial: The politics of evidence, data and research in anti-trafficking work". Anti-Trafficking Review (8). doi:10.14197/atr.20121781.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Andrijasevic, Rutvica; Mai, Nicola (30 September 2016). "Editorial: Trafficking (in) Representations: Understanding the recurring appeal of victimhood and slavery in neoliberal times". Anti-Trafficking Review (7). doi:10.14197/atr.20121771.
- ^ Wijers, Marjan (30 April 2015). "Purity, Victimhood and Agency: Fifteen years of the UN Trafficking Protocol". Anti-Trafficking Review (4). doi:10.14197/atr.20121544.
- ^ Bernstein, Elizabeth (January 2019). Brokered subjects : sex, trafficking, and the politics of freedom. Chicago, IL. ISBN 9780226573632. OCLC 1022777061.
- ^ "Trafficking in Persons Report". www.state.gov. Retrieved 25 October 2018.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Salazar., Parreñas, Rhacel (2011). Illicit flirtations : labor, migration, and sex trafficking in Tokyo. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804778169. OCLC 763155680.
- ^ Aziza Ahmed and Meena Seshu (June 2012). ""We Have the Right Not to Be 'rescued'…"*: When Anti-Trafficking Programmes Undermine the Health and Well-Being of Sex Workers". Anti Trafficking Review. 1: 149–19.
- ^ "USAID Contracts with Faith Based Organizations". Boston.com. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
- ^ "Awareness Against Human Trafficking | HAART Kenya". Retrieved 23 August 2019.
- ^ "UNANIMA International: STOP THE DEMAND". www.unanima-international.org. Retrieved 23 August 2019.
- ^ "JWT Is Training Former Underage Sex Workers in India for Careers in Law".
- ^ Jump up to: a b Kamler, Erin Michelle (2013). "Negotiating Narratives of Human Trafficking: NGOs, Communication and the Power of Culture". Journal of Intercultural Communication. 42: 73–90. doi:10.1080/17475759.2012.728147. S2CID 143919392.
- ^ Kempadoo, Kamala (2 January 2015). "The Modern-Day White (Wo)Man's Burden: Trends in Anti-Trafficking and Anti-Slavery Campaigns". Journal of Human Trafficking. 1 (1): 8–20. doi:10.1080/23322705.2015.1006120. ISSN 2332-2705. S2CID 154908845.
- ^ Chie, Noyori-Corbett; Moxley, David (2018). "Addressing Female Sex Trade Human Trafficking in Japan through NGO Advocacy Networks". International Social Work. 61 (6): 954–967. doi:10.1177/0020872817695383. S2CID 151901398.
- ^ Majic 2017; Weiss & Tschirhart 1994
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Saiz-Echezarreta, Vanessa; et al. (2018). "Advocacy of Trafficking Campaigns: A Controversy Story". Comunicar. 26 (55): 29–38. doi:10.3916/C55-2018-03.
- ^ "Home – The Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women (GAATW)". Retrieved 29 September 2016.
- ^ "Staying Alive Foundation". Retrieved 29 September 2016.
- ^ "MTV EXIT Foundation (End Exploitation and Trafficking) – Corporate NGO partnerships". Retrieved 29 September 2016.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c "Our Solution". The A21 Campgain. The A21 Campgain. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "Our Strategy". Not for Sale. Archived from the original on 28 April 2015. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
- ^ "2013 Annual Impact Report". Not for Sale. Archived from the original on 28 April 2015. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
- ^ "Michelle Goldberg, "The Super Bowl of Sex Trafficking," Newsweek, January 30, 2011".
- ^ Malo, Sebastien (1 February 2018). "Is the Super Bowl really the U.S.'s biggest sex trafficking magnet?". Reuters. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
- ^ Emanuella Grinberg and Christina Maxouris (31 January 2019). "Sex trafficking and the Super Bowl: Myths and the real issues". CNN.com. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
- ^ Latonero, Mark. "Human Trafficking Online: The Role of Social Networking Sites and Online Classifieds." USC Annenberg Center on Communication Leadership & Policy. Available at SSRN 2045851 (2011).
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Berger, Stephanie M (2012). "No End In Sight: Why The "End Demand" Movement Is The Wrong Focus For Efforts To Eliminate Human Trafficking". Harvard Journal of Law & Gender. 35 (2): 523–570.
- ^ Wortley, S.; Fischer, B.; Webster, C. (2002). "Vice lessons: A survey of prostitution offenders enrolled in the Toronto John School Diversion Program". Canadian Journal of Criminology. 3 (3): 227–248.
- ^ Monto, Martin A.; Garcia, Steve (2001). "Recidivism Among the Customers of Female Street Prostitutes: Do Intervention Programs Help?". Western Criminology Review. 3 (2). Archived from the original on 11 September 2007.
- ^ Jones, Samuel Vincent (2010). The Invisible Man: The Conscious Neglect of Men and Boys in the War on Human Trafficking, Utah Law Review, No 4.
- ^ Davis, Jarrett D; Glotfelty, Elliot; Miles, Glenn. ""No Other Choice": A Baseline Study on the Vulnerabilities of Males in the Sex Trade in Chiang Mai, Thailand". Dignity: A Journal on Sexual Exploitation and Violence. 2 (4).
- ^ Global Network of Sex Work Projects (NSWP) (2014). The Needs and Rights of Male Sex Workers, Briefing paper no 8, UK
- ^ Jump up to: a b Lee, Samuel; Persson, Petra (November 2015). "Human Trafficking and Regulating Prostitution". NELLCO. Retrieved 1 October 2018.
- ^ "'End Human Trafficking Giving Day".
- ^ "World Day against Trafficking in Persons, 30 July". www.un.org.
- ^ "Media Resources - thetraffickedhuman.org". thetraffickedhuman.org.
- ^ "Buying sex is a crime – though you'd never know it in BC | Church for Vancouver".
- ^ "About Us - thetraffickedhuman.org". thetraffickedhuman.org.
- ^ Jump up to: a b "Buying sex is illegal, billboard campaign reminds Edmontonians | CBC News". CBC.
- ^ "About". BuyingSexIsACrime.org.
External links[]
- National Human Trafficking Hotline (US)
- Polaris Project Archived 28 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- 2019 Trafficking in Persons Report (country rankings by the U.S. Department of State)
- Sex trafficking
- Human trafficking
- Organized crime activity
- Sex crimes
- Sexual misconduct
- Violence against men
- Violence against women