Structural stage theory

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Structural stage theories are based on the idea that humans develop through a pattern of distinct stages over time and that these stages can be described based on their distinguishing characteristics. The concept is used in Piaget's theory of cognitive development, but also in theories of cultural development and in models of spiritual evolution.

In Piaget's theory of cognitive development, and related models like those of Loevinger and James W. Fowler, stages have a constant order of succession, later stages integrate the achievements of earlier stages, and each is characterized by a particular type of structure of mental processes which is specific to it. The time of appearance may vary to a certain extent depending upon environmental conditions.[1]

In spirituality, stage models developed before Piaget. Influenced by western esotericism, Swami Vivekanda and Sri Aurobindo regarded spiritual development as a process of involution and evolution, in which the Divine descends into the material world, from which it has to be liberated again in a process of growing awareness over multiple lifes. Cultural psychologist Jean Gebser also developed a model of collective human development, which in turn influenced Ken Wilber, together with Aurobindo and others.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development[]

Main article: Piaget's theory of cognitive development

Jean Piaget's theory[2] consists of four stages: Sensorimotor: (birth to 2 years), Preoperations: (2 to 7 years), Concrete operations: (7 to 11 years), and Formal Operations: (11 to 16 years). Each stage has at least two substages, usually called early and fully.

Underlying assumptions:

  • Each stage lays the foundation for the next.
  • Everyone goes through the stages in the same order.
  • Each stage is qualitatively different. Meaning it is a change in nature, not just quantity
  • The child is an active learner. Basically they have to do it on their own, they cannot be told.

Stages:

  • Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years). This stage is represented when infants obtain some control over their surroundings by sensory and motor schemes. [3] Infants start to identify their actions and the consequences of their actions. [4]
  • Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years). Preoperational intelligence means the young child is capable of mental representations, but does not have a system for organizing this thinking (intuitive rather than logical thought). The child is egocentric – which is they have problems distinguishing from their own perceptions and perceptions of others. The child also has rigid thinking.
  • Concrete operations (7 to 11 years). Intelligence is now both symbolic and logical. Acquires ‘operations’ = a set of general rules and strategies. The most critical part of operations is realizing ‘reversibility’ = both physical and mental processes can be reversed and cancelled out by others.

The concrete operational child will overcome the aspects of rigidity apparent in a preoperational child.

  • Formal operations (11 to 16 years). Child is capable of formulating hypotheses and then testing them against reality. Thinking is abstract, that is a child/adolescent can formulate all the possible outcomes before beginning the problem. They are also capable of deductive reasoning.

A popular criticism is that Piaget underestimated the abilities of an infant. Studies have shown that they have more of a capacity in memory and understanding of objects than he believed. [5]

Neo-Piagetian and Post-Piagetian stage theories[]

Main article: Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development

Juan Pascaual-Leone was the first to propose a neo-Piagetian stage theory. Since that time there have been several neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development.[6] Only the ones that cover at least infancy through adulthood are mentioned here. These include the theories of Robbie Case, Grame Halford, Andreas Demetriou and Kurt W. Fischer. The theory of Michael Commons' model of hierarchical complexity is also relevant. The description of stages in these theories is more elaborate and focuses on underlying mechanisms of information processing rather than on reasoning as such. In fact, development in information processing capacity is invoked to explain the development of reasoning. More stages are described (as many as 15 stages), with 4 being added beyond the stage of Formal operations. Most stage sequences map onto one another. PostPiagetian stages are free of content and context and are therefore very powerful and general.

List of books formulating stage theories[]

†Posthumously published in the later year listed, primarily written by the earlier year.

Related works[]

  • Kessen, W., & Kessel F. S., Bornstein M. H., & Sameroff A. J. (1991). Contemporary constructions of the child: essays in honor of William Kessen. Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.
  • Bhattacharjee, Yudhijit (18 March 2012). "Why Bilinguals Are Smarter". New York Times. p. SR.12. ProQuest 934457002.

See also[]

References[]

  1. ^ Piaget, J. (1970). Piaget’s theory. In P. H. Mussen, (Ed.), Carmichael’s handbook of child development (pp. 703-732). New York: Wiley.
  2. ^ Piaget, J. (1951 ). The psychology of intelligence. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
  3. ^ Newman, B. M., & Newman P. R. (2012). Development Through Life: A Psychosocial Approach. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, p. 36.
  4. ^ Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson B. L., Loftus G. R., & Wagenaar W. A.. (2009). Atkinson & Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology. Cheriton House, UK: Cengage Learning EMEA, p. 78.
  5. ^ Bee, H. L., & Boyd, D. (2010). The Developing Child. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon, p. 148.
  6. ^ Demetriou, A. (1998). Cognitive development. In A. Demetriou, W. Doise, K. F. M. van Lieshout (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology (pp. 179-269). London: Wiley.
  7. ^ Schueler, Annemarie (1980). An exploratory study of Egan’s four stages of educational development and their application to curriculum design in physical education (Thesis). doi:10.14288/1.0055703. hdl:2429/21939.

Further reading[]

  • Bee, H. L., & Boyd, D. (2010). The Developing Child. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
  • Demetriou, A. (1998). Cognitive development. In A. Demetriou, W. Doise, K. F. M. van Lieshout (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology (pp. 179-269). London: Wiley.
  • McLeod, S. A. (2010). Sensorimotor Stage - Object Permanence. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/sensorimotor.html
  • Newman, B. M., & Newman P. R. (2012). Development Through Life: A Psychosocial Approach. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
  • Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson B. L., Loftus G. R., & Wagenaar W. A.. (2009). Atkinson & Hilgard's Introduction to Psychology. Cheriton House, UK: Cengage Learning EMEA.
  • Piaget, J. (1970). Piaget’s theory. In P. H. Mussen, (Ed.), Carmichael’s handbook of child development (pp. 703-732). New York: Wiley.
  • Piaget, J. (1950). The psychology of intelligence. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
  • Singer, D. G., & Revenson T. A. (1997). A Piaget Primer: How a Child Thinks. Madison, CT: International Universities Press, Inc.
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