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Succession to Muhammad

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For the book by Wilferd Madelung, see The Succession to Muhammad.

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The succession to Muhammad is the central issue that split the Muslim community into several divisions in the first century of Islamic history, with the most prominent among these sects being the Shia and Sunni branches of Islam. Shia Islam holds that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the appointed successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad as head of the community. Sunni Islam maintains Abu Bakr to be the first leader after Muhammad on the basis of election.

The contrasting opinions regarding the succession are primarily based on differing interpretations of events in early Islamic history as well as of hadiths (sayings of Muhammad). The Sunni believe that Muhammad had not appointed a successor and had instead intended for the Muslim community to choose a leader from among themselves. They accept the rule of Abu Bakr, who was elected at Saqifah, and that of his successors, who are together referred to as the Rashidun Caliphs.

On the other hand, the Shia believe that Ali had previously been nominated by Muhammad as heir, most notably during the event of Ghadir Khumm. They primarily see the rulers who followed Muhammad as illegitimate. Instead, in the Shia view, the rightful successors of Muhammad are Ali and eleven Imams of his lineage, who are viewed as divinely appointed. The last of these Imams, Mahdi, went into occultation in 260 AH (874 CE), due to the hostility of the Imam's enemies and the danger to his life.[1] His advent is awaited by the Shia and Sunni alike, although the two sects hold different views about Mahdi.[2]

In addition to these two main views, there are also other opinions regarding the succession to Muhammad.

Historiography[]

Different Muslim demographics disagree on the succession of Muhammad
See also: Historiography of early Islam

Most of Islamic history was transmitted orally until after the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate.[note 1] Historical works of later Muslim writers include the traditional biographies of Muhammad and quotations attributed to him—the sira and hadith literature—which provide further information on Muhammad's life.[3] The earliest surviving written sira (biography of Muhammad) is Sirat Rasul Allah (Life of God's Messenger) by Ibn Ishaq (d. 761 or 767 CE).[4] Although the original work is lost, portions of it survive in the recensions of Ibn Hisham (d. 833) and Al-Tabari (d. 923).[5] Many scholars accept these biographies although their accuracy is uncertain.[6] Studies by J. Schacht and Ignác Goldziher have led scholars to distinguish between legal and historical traditions. According to William Montgomery Watt, although legal traditions could have been invented, historical material may have been primarily subject to "tendential shaping" rather than being invented.[7] Modern Western scholars approach the classic Islamic histories with circumspection and are less likely than Sunni Islamic scholars to trust the work of the Abbasid historians.

Hadith compilations are records of the traditions or sayings of Muhammad. The development of hadith is a crucial element of the first three centuries of Islamic history.[8] Early Western scholars mistrusted the later narrations and reports, regarding them as fabrications.[9] Leone Caetani considered the attribution of historical reports to `Abd Allah ibn `Abbas and Aisha as mostly fictitious, preferring accounts reported without isnad by early historians such as Ibn Ishaq.[10] Wilferd Madelung has rejected the indiscriminate dismissal of everything not included in "early sources", instead judging later narratives in the context of history and compatibility with events and figures.[11]

The only contemporaneous source is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays (Kitab al-Saqifah) by Sulaym ibn Qays (died 75-95 AH or 694-714 CE). This collection of hadith and historical reports from the first century of the Islamic calendar narrates in detail events relating to the succession.[12] However, there have been doubts regarding the reliability of the collection, with some believing that it was a later creation given that the earliest mention of the text only appears in the 11th century.[13]

Succession to Muhammad in the Quran[]

The Quran, as the central religious text of Islam, does not explicitly identify a successor to Muhammad.[14] The Quran, however, frequently emphasizes the importance of preserving bonds of blood relationship, which might be pertinent to the discussion of succession.[15] One such instance is Q16:90, which reads, "Indeed, God enjoins justice and kindness and generosity towards relatives, and He forbids indecency, wrong, and aggression..."[14][16]

Also related to the matter of succession is the prominent position of the past prophets' families in the Quran. In particular, after the past prophets, their descendants become the spiritual and material heirs to them in the Quran. Indeed, the Quran repeatedly describes how the past prophets prayed for (and were granted) divine favors for their kin.[17] For instance, once Abraham successfully fulfilled his divine missions, Q2:124 records the following exchange: "[God] said [to Abraham], ‘I am making you the Imam of mankind.’ [Abraham] replied, ‘And from among my descendants?’ [God] said [in response that], ‘My pledge does not extend to the unjust.’"[18][19] That is, God's pledge does extend to just descendants of Abraham, including Muhammad.[20][21] In fact, from Noah to Jesus, the prophets of the Israelites were all descendants of a single family.[17]

Similar to the past prophets, the Quran repeatedly emphasizes the exalted status of Muhammad's family.[22][23][24] For instance, the verse of purification promises to thoroughly purify Muhammad's close relatives from sins and wrongdoing.[25] Another example is the verse of Wilayah in which "the faithful" refers to Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Ali, according to Shia and a number of Sunni exegeses.[26] The Arabic word wali, however, has multiple meanings and, in this verse, the Shia interpret the word wali as leader or guardian, whereas Sunni scholars interpret this word to mean friend.[27]

Quran 5:55
Text Translation
إِنَّما وَلِيُّكُمُ اللَّهُ وَرَسولُهُ وَالَّذينَ آمَنُوا الَّذينَ يُقيمونَ الصَّلاةَ وَيُؤتونَ الزَّكاةَ وَهُم راكِعونَ Your wali (leader, guardian, friend?) is only God, His Apostle,

and the faithful who maintain the prayer and give the zakat while bowing down [in worship].

According to the author W. Madelung, insofar as the Quran reflects the views of Muhammad, he could have not seen his succession differently from earlier prophets, who prayed for (and were granted) the divine favor to be succeeded by their close kin in kingship, in rule, in wisdom, in imamate, etc.[28] Madelung posits that, "It is evident that he [Muhammad] could not have considered Abu Bakr his natural successor or have been pleased by his succession."[29] This is because, in the Quran, the succession of prophets is a matter that is settled by divine selection rather than by shura (consultation). In particular, God selects their successors from their own family, whether or not those successors become prophets themselves.[30][31][32]

Succession to Muhammad in hadith[]

Feast of Dhul Asheera[]

Main article: Hadith of Warning
Multicolored Arabic-script design, where "Muhammad" reads "Ali" when turned upside down
Ambigram in which "Muhammad" (محمد in Arabic script) reads "Ali" (علي) when rotated 180°

Upon receiving verse 26:214 of the Quran, Muhammad was tasked with presenting Islam to his relatives some three years after his first divine revelation (c. 617 CE).[33] There are multiple accounts of how Muhammad attempted to do this,[34] with one version stating that he invited his relatives to a meal, later named the feast of Dhul Asheera.[35] According to ibn Ishaq, after the meal, Muhammad presented Islam to his relatives and asked them for their support: "Who will help me in this venture, as my brother, my executor and my successor?" Muhammad's cousin, Ali, who was the youngest among them, was the only relative who offered his assistance to Muhammad. In response, Muhammad placed his hand on Ali's shoulder and declared:[36][37][35][38]

This [Ali] is my brother, my executor and my successor. Listen to him and obey him.

This announcement was met with ridicule from Abu Lahab, Muhammad's uncle and a staunch polytheist, and the guests dispersed afterwards.[37][35] Some sources, such as the Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, have not recorded Muhammad's response to Ali.[35] What is notable in these accounts is the early appointment of Ali as Muhammad's heir.[39] One of the accounts of this event is attributed to Ali, in which he describes himself as Muhammad's successor.[35][40] Lastly, the association of this event with the revelation of a Quranic verse appears to offer both authenticity and divine authorization.[35]

Al-Suyuti's account[]

In his Tarikh al-Khulafa, al-Suyuti collected the narrations that support the view that Muhammad did not name a successor.[41] One such example alleges that Ali gave the statement, "Oh men, verily the Apostle of God (Muhammad) hath committed nothing unto us in regard to this authority, in order that we might of our own judgment approve and appoint Abu Bakr." According to another one, when asked if he wished to name his successor as caliph, Ali responded that, "The Apostle of God appointed none, shall I, therefore, do so?"[42]

However, these claims might contradict the body of evidence that suggests Ali was vocal about his (perceived) right to succeed Muhammad. Indeed, according to the author Jafri, Ali believed that he was unjustly deprived of his right to lead the Muslim community.[43] For instance, in a hadith about the feast of Dhul Ashira, Ali recounted how Muhammad appointed him as his successor.[35] As another example, many years after Muhammad's death, Ali referred to the Ghadir Khumm event to support his right to the caliphate.[44][45][46] Similarly, in his famous Shaqshaqiya sermon, Ali emphasized that Abu Bakr and Umar had exacted the caliphate for themselves, even though they were aware that Ali was the rightful successor of Muhammad.[47][48] On another occasion, Ali suggested that he would have overturned the tables after Muhammad's death, if he was not concerned about divisiveness.[49]

Jafri also suggests that early Sunni scholars made every effort in their writings to imply as much agreement as possible between Ali, Abu Bakr, and Umar.[50] In reality, after Muhammad's death, it is well-cited that Ali did not acknowledge Abu Bakr's authority for at least six months.[50] In fact, compared to his active role in Muhammad's lifetime, Ali was largely marginalized after Muhammad's death by all accounts.[51][52]

It is also claimed that, when caliph Umar was asked about his successor, he replied that if he gave a nomination, he had precedent in Abu Bakr's actions; if he named no one, he had precedent by Muhammad's.[53]

Hadith of position[]

Main article: Hadith of position

Before leaving Medina on the long expedition to Tabuk in 9 AH, Muhammad appointed Ali as his deputy in Medina. After rumors spread that the two had fallen out, Muhammad publicly endorsed Ali by saying that, "Are you not content, Ali, to stand to me as Aaron stood to Moses, except that there will be no prophet after me?"[54] Another source has recorded that Muhammad also added, "It is not permissible for me to go without you being my caliph (successor)."[55] According to ibn Hisham, the rumors in Medina were spread by munafiqun (hypocrites).[56]

The hadith of position suggests that Ali enjoys the same position in Islam that Aaron has in Judaism, except that Ali was not a prophet. Aside from being a prophet himself, the Quran portrays Aaron as Moses' brother and his divinely-appointed minister and deputy.[57][58][59][60] In particular, Aaron was left in charge of the Israelites in the absence of Moses, when the latter ascended mount Sinai.[61] As a side note, prophets, including Aaron, are generally considered infallible in Islam, albeit different sects interpret infallibility differently.[62]

In view of the hadith of position, Shia Islam extends Aaron's privileges to Ali, except prophethood.[63] That is, from the Shia viewpoint, the hadith of position suggests that

  1. Muhammad considered Ali to be his divinely-appointed deputy and the second-in-command among Muslims.[64]
  2. Muhammad considered Ali to be his brother.[65] Indeed, when Muslims were being paired together in sworn brotherhood after the migration to Medina, Muhammad chose Ali as his brother and proclaimed, "You are my brother in this world and the hereafter."[66]
  3. Muhammad considered Ali to be infallible,[64] thus corroborating the Shia interpretation of both the purification verse in the Quran and the hadith of the Kisa.[23][67] (The purification verse is about God's will to cleanse Ahl al-Bayt from any wrongdoing. The well-attested hadith of the Kisa specifies Ahl al-Bayt as Muhammad, Fatimah, Ali, Hasan and Husayn. However, the infallibility of Ahl al-Bayt and its makeup are both disputed by the Sunni.)

Accordingly, Shia Islam considers Ali to be the divinely-appointed successor of Muhammad.[68][69] Of similar importance here is the divine prerogatives bestowed upon Aaron's descendants, including God's proclamation in the Hebrew Bible that, "Behold, I give unto him [Aaron] My covenant of peace. And he shall have it, and his seed after him, even the covenant of an everlasting priesthood."[70] This privilege might be compared to Shia belief that Imams, from the lineage of Ali, inherited Ali's divine wisdom and authority.[71] This divine elevation of prophets' descendants above the rest of the faithful is a recurring theme in the Quran.[72]

A criticism of the Shia interpretation is that Ali might not have been Muhammad's first choice for governing Medina during the Tabuk expedition. Reportedly, Muhammad had first left Jafar in charge of his family. It is not clear who this Jafar might have been, considering that Jafar ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's prominent relative, had been killed a year earlier.[55] This claim also appears to contradict Muhammad's statement that, "It is not permissible for me to go without you [Ali] being my caliph."[55] Historical records indicate that Muhammad used the same analogy between Aaron and Ali on multiple other occasions, e.g., during the battle of Khaybar.[73]

Another criticism of the Shia interpretation is that Aaron died before Moses, i.e., Aaron could not succeed Moses.[74] It might, however, be futile to attempt to identify all aspects of Ali and Aaron's lives: Paraphrasing the Shia scholar al-Mufid, the hadith of position endowed Ali with every (Quranic) position that Aaron had held except prophethood, namely, the deputy, the minister, and a brother.[75] In particular, had he survived Moses, Aaron would have succeeded Moses.[63] The "after me" in the hadith might also signify Ali's position after Muhammad's death, according to the Shia scholar Rezwani.[76]

A similar criticism is that Ali was Muhammad's cousin and his son-in-law, rather than his blood brother.[77] Nevertheless, it is worth noting that Muhammad had twice sworn a pact of brotherhood with Ali.[66][74]

Event of Ghadir Khumm[]

Main article: Event of Ghadir Khumm
The Investiture of Ali at Ghadir Khumm, an illustration from Al-Biruni's Chronology of Ancient Nations

This event was Muhammad's last public address before his death three months later.[78] This event was also Muhammad's most public announcement about Ali. However, no definitive (Sunni) record of Muhammad's sermon remains today, even though some parts of this sermon have been preserved in a number of sayings.[79] On 18 Dhu al-Hijjah 10 AH (March 632 CE), after his farewell pilgrimage to Mecca and on his return trip to Medina, Muhammad stopped at the oasis Ghadir Khumm in order to make an announcement. He ordered those who were ahead to return and waited for the remaining pilgrims to join them.[80] After the noon prayer, to avoid the extreme heat, a dais was constructed for Muhammad in the shade.[81]

Muhammad then delivered a sermon.[82] In this sermon or earlier in Mecca, he alerted Muslims about his imminent death.[83][79] In this sermon, Muhammad also told Muslims that he would leave among them two important things: the Quran and his Ahl al-Bayt, meaning his close relatives.[84][85] He then warned Muslims, "Be careful how you treat the two after me. These two will never separate until they are presented to me on the day of resurrection."[86]

Finally, calling up Ali and taking him by the hand, Muhammad asked his followers whether he was not superior in authority and in person (awla) to the believers themselves. The crowd shouted their agreement.[78] Muhammad then uttered what has become known as the Ghadir Khumm hadith:[86]

"Anyone who has me as his mawla, has this Ali as his mawla."

He repeated this sentence three more times.[86] Some accounts add that Muhammad continued, "O God, befriend the friend of Ali and be the enemy of his enemy."[86] After Muhammad's sermon, Umar congratulated Ali and told him, "You have now become mawla of every faithful man and woman."[87][88]

While the authenticity of the Ghadir Khumm event is not contested, the interpretation of mawla is a source of controversy between Sunni and Shia.[89][90] Mawla has multiple meanings in Arabic and the opinion about the meaning of this word in the Ghadir Khumm hadith is split along sectarian lines between Sunni and Shia. Among the Sunni, the word mawla in this hadith is interpreted as "friend" or "one who is loyal/close," i.e., Muhammad was advocating that Ali was deserving of friendship and respect. Conversely, the Shia interpret the word mawla as "leader" or "ruler," i.e., the Ghadir Khumm hadith was a clear designation of Ali as Muhammad's successor.[82] According to the author Abbas, it would have been unreasonable for Muhammad to gather thousands of pilgrims at that remote location and in the scorching heat to "show his love and appreciation for Ali."[91]

Some sources, such as al-Dur al-Manthur, have recorded that verse 5:67 of the Quran was revealed to Muhammad shortly before the Ghadir Khumm event: "O Apostle! Communicate that which has been sent down to you from your Lord, and if you do not, you will not have communicated His message, and Allah shall protect you from the people. Indeed, Allah does not guide the faithless lot."[79][80]

Notably, the Ghadir Khumm event has been preserved in the Arabic literature.[92][93] The earliest and the most controversial instance is a poem attributed to Hassan bin Thabit, who accompanied Muhammad at his only pilgrimage to Mecca.[92] According to the author Jafri, it is highly improbable that the Ghadir Khumm event would have passed unrecorded by Hassan, who was the "official poet-reporter of Muhammad."[92][82] This poem, which has been preserved by Shia sources and some Sunni authorities, includes the verse, "Stand up, O Ali, for I find only you to be an Imam and a guide after I [Muhammad] depart."[92][88]

A criticism of the Shia interpretation of the Ghadir Khumm event, as vocalized by the author M. A. Shaban, is that the community of Medina did not react as if they had heard of Ali's appointment.[94] On the one hand, in his book, Shaban arrives at this conclusion without citing any historical records.[94] On the other hand, according to the author Jafri, the hundreds of recorded accounts of the Ghadir Khumm event leave little room to doubt its authenticity and perceived importance to Muhammad's companions.[95] Indeed, the Shia scholar Amini compiled eleven volumes worth of sources in support of the Shia interpretation of this event.[96]

Congregational prayer[]

The most notable incident that supports Abu Bakr's right to succession reportedly occurred towards the end of Muhammad's life. Too ill to lead prayers himself, Muhammad supposedly instructed that Abu Bakr to take his place, ignoring concerns that he was too emotionally delicate for the role. Abu Bakr subsequently took up the position and, when Muhammad entered the prayer hall one morning during Fajr prayer, Abu Bakr attempted to step back to let Muhammad lead the prayer. Muhammad however, allowed Abu Bakr to continue.[97] There are various versions of this report, many of which are attributed to Abu Bakr's daughter, Aisha, whose enmity with Ali is well-documented.[98][99][100] After mentioning this report, the author Madelung defers to the historian Caetani, who considered this report to be an invention of Muslim traditionalists.[101] The multiple versions of this report are often contradictory, according to the historian Jafri.[102]

Other incidents similarly used by the Sunni are Abu Bakr service as Muhammad's vizier during his time in Medina, as well as him being appointed the first of his companions to lead the Hajj pilgrimage. However, several other companions had held similar positions of authority and trust, including the leading of prayers. Such honors may therefore not hold much importance in matters of succession.[97][94]

Incident of the pen and paper[]

Main article: Hadith of the pen and paper

A day or two before his death, Muhammad asked for writing materials: "I need to write something so that you will not go astray when I am gone."[103][104] Umar reportedly intervened, telling those present that Muhammad was raving, and adding that, "You have the Quran, the book of God is sufficient for us."[103][105][106] A quarrel broke out at Muhammad's bedside, with some suggesting that Muhammad's orders should be followed and some siding with Umar to disregard Muhammad's request.[103][106] The noise apparently pained Muhammad, who scolded those present by his bedside: "Go away and leave me."[106][107]

Concerns about overstraining the ill Muhammad is often viewed by Sunni scholars as the motive in this incident.[103] The author L. Hazleton, however, suggests that Muhammad might had wanted to dictate his will and, "If Ali turned out to be the designated heir, no body in that room wanted it put into writing."[108] This incident has been called the great disaster of Islam, without which, the course of history might have been different.[103] There is, in fact, no dearth of speculation among scholars about what Muhammad intended to write. Shia scholars, like al-Shaykh al-Mufid, suggest that it would have been a formal appointment of Ali as the new leader, while Sunni authorities, such as al-Baladhuri, state that it was to designate Abu Bakr.

In Sunni Islam, this hadith has also been linked to the rise of the community politics which followed Muhammad's death; the argument is that Muhammad had implicitly agreed to how the Muslim ummah would act after his death. From the Sunni viewpoint, this hadith is therefore linked to the emergence of sayings, attributed to Muhammad, such as, "My ummah will never agree on an error," an idea perpetuated by theologians like ibn Hazm and ibn Sayyid al-Nās.[107] It is, however, not clear whether consensus was reached in the appointment of Abu Bakr, in view of the absence of many Muslims from Saqifah, as detailed in the next section.[109][31][110]

Historical overview[]

Saqifah[]

Main article: Saqifah
A Persian miniature illustrating the vowing to Abu Bakr at Saqifah

In the immediate aftermath of Muhammad's death in 11 AH (632 CE), a gathering of the Ansar (natives of Medina) took place at Saqifah in Medina.[111] The purpose of the meeting might had been for the Ansar to regain the control over their city after Muhammad's death, with the intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun (migrants from Mecca).[112][113]

Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar, both companions of Muhammad, upon learning about the meeting, rushed to the gathering and reportedly forced their way into Saqifah.[113][114] Abu Bakr and Umar, accompanied by Abu Ubaidah and a few relatives, were the only members of Muhajirun who attended the Saqifah gathering.[115]

When they arrived, Abu Bakr warned the Ansar that Arabs will not recognize the rule of anyone outside of Muhammad's tribe, the Quraysh. Muhajirun, Abu Bakr argued, had the most noble lineage, had accepted Islam earlier, and were nearer to Muhammad in relation.[113][116][117] He then took Umar and Abu Ubaidah by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. Abu Bakr was countered with the offer that the Quraysh and the Ansar should each choose separate rulers from among themselves. The stalemate reportedly continued through the night and into the next day.[116] As evident from the early accounts, eloquent speeches gave way to a shouting match, with different groups competing for power.[31][118] Sa'd ibn Ubadah, the chief of the Khazraj tribe of the Ansar, reportedly accused the attending Muhajirin of colluding together.[119] In a decisive move, Umar took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his allegiance to him, an example eventually followed by the Ansar after ibn Ubadah was beaten into compliance.[119][120]

The outburst of violence, according to Madelung, indicates that a substantial number of the Ansar must have initially refused to follow Umar's lead. Otherwise, Madelung argues, there would have been no need to beat up their chief, ibn Ubadah.[121] Even after Umar's pledge to Abu Bakr, some of the Ansar reportedly insisted that, "We will not pay allegiance to anyone except Ali," who was not present at Saqifah.[122][123][31] It has been suggested that two factors allowed the handful of Muhajirun at Saqifah to impose their will upon the Ansar:[124] The first factor was that two key figures broke rank with the rest of the Ansar and backed Abu Bakr: Usaid ibn Hudair, a leader of the rival tribe of Aws, and Bashir bin Sa'ad, an internal rival of Sa'd ibn Ubadah among the Khazraj tribe.[124][123] The second factor was the timely arrival of the Aslam tribe in great numbers, who filled the streets of Medina. The Aslam tribe, residing outside of Medina, were the enemies of the Ansar and readily supported Abu Bakr. Umar would often point out that, "It was only when I saw the Aslam that I became certain of [our] victory."[124]

The Saqifah event has been criticized as a "backroom deal" or a "coup" which was heavily influenced by pre-Islamic tribal politics.[125][126][127][128][129][130][131] Muhammad's family and the majority of the Muhajirun were excluded from the Saqifah gathering.[109][31] In particular, Ali was holding vigil over Muhammad's body, alongside other close relatives, and likely learned about the outcome of Saqifah only after the fact.[132] Madelung points out that Abu Bakr did everything in his speech to avoid raising the case of Ali for the caliphate.[133]

Indeed, Madelung suggests that what Umar called a hasty decision (falta) at Saqifah, materialized in part out of the fear that the Ansar might put forward the case of Ali among themselves.[133] According to Madelung, Abu Bakr was well aware that a broad shura, in which Ali was to be on option, would have almost inevitably led to the election of Ali:[134] The Ansar would have likely supported Ali because of his family ties with them, and the same arguments that favored Abu Bakr over the Ansar (kinship, service to Islam, etc.) would have arguably favored Ali over Abu Bakr.[134][135][102] Madelung adds that the straightforward logic of dynastic succession would have almost certainly prevailed in a general shura.[136] Madelung also notes that the evil of the falta which, Umar thought, had been averted by God would erupt later with a vengeance in the form of a brutal civil war after Uthman's assassination.[137]

Before the participants of the Saqifah gathering scattered, Muhammad had been buried.[127][119] With the help of the Aslam and Aws tribes, Umar then dominated the streets to secure pledge of allegiance of Medinans.[138] Several companions, most notably, Ali and his supporters, initially refused to acknowledge Abu Bakr's authority.[111][139][140] To cement his new authority, Abu Bakr ordered his aides, among them Umar, to confront Ali, resulting in an altercation which may have involved violence.[141] In an act of passive resistance, however, Ali continued to hold out against Abu Bakr's pressure until his wife, Fatimah, died a few months later.[142] According to the Shia, Fatimah died from the injuries that she suffered in a raid on her house, ordered by Abu Bakr. This claim is rejected by the Sunni.[143] Fatimah's dying wish was that Abu Bakr and Umar should not attend her funeral.[144][145][146]

These initial conflicts after Muhammad's death are regarded as the first signs of the coming division among Muslims.[147] Those who had accepted Abu Bakr's caliphate later became the Sunni, while the supporters of Ali's right to caliphate eventually became the Shia.[148]

Rashidun Caliphs[]

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Battle of Karbala, an oil painting by Abbas Al-Musavi
The Skies Fell, an oil painting by Hassan Rouholamin that portrays the final hours of Husayn's life.

Abu Bakr adopted the title of khalifat rasul Allah, commonly translated as the successor to the messenger of God.[149] This was shortened to khalifa, from which the word caliph arose.[150][151] Abu Bakr's tenure as the caliph lasted just over two years.[152] While he was appointed caliph at the gathering in Saqifah, Abu Bakr designated Umar as his successor, reportedly against the advice of the Quraysh elders and without a say from the community.[153][154][155][152] Umar was instrumental in the rise of Abu Bakr to power.[130]

In 644 CE, on his deathbed, Umar tasked a small committee of six with choosing the next caliph among themselves. Notably, the committee included Ali, Uthman ibn Affan and his brother-in-law, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf.[156] The tie breaker vote was given to Abd al-Rahman, Othman's brother-in-law, and it is generally believed that the makeup and configuration of this committee left a small possibility for Ali's nomination.[157][158][159]

In the final showdown, Abd al-Rahman offered the caliphate to Ali on two conditions: First, he should follow the way of the Quran and the Sunnah of Muhammad, and second, he should follow the example of Abu Bakr and Umar. Ali reportedly accepted the first condition but declined the second one, adding that he would rely only on his own judgment in the absence of any precedent from the Quran or the Sunnah.[160] Abd al-Rahman then presented the same conditions to Uthman who readily accepted them.[161] It has been suggested that Abd al-Rahman was well aware of Ali's disagreements with the past two caliphs and that Ali, known for his sincerity, would have inevitably rejected the second condition.[158][162][161]

Uthman's reign was marked with widespread nepotism.[163][164] Under Uthman's rule, his tribe, the Banu Umayyad, regained its pre-Islamic influence and power.[163][164] Uthman installed his relatives, including his cousin, Muawiya, to rule the vast Islamic territories.[165][166] In 656 CE, as the public dissatisfaction with despotism and corruption came to a boiling point, Uthman was assassinated by rebels.[165][167]

Shortly after Uthman's assassination, the crowds turned to Ali for leadership and were turned down initially.[168][169][170] Will Durant explains Ali's initial reluctance as, "Genial and charitable, meditative and reserved; he shrank from drama in which religion had been displaced by politics, and devotion by intrigue."[171] In the absence of any serious opposition and urged particularly by the Ansar and the Iraqi delegations, Ali eventually took up the mantle and Muslims filled the mosque and its courtyard to pledge their allegiance to him.[172][173][174]

While there is no record of any violence, Talha ibn Ubayd Allah and Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, who both soon took up arms against Ali, and a few of Uthman's associates later alleged that they had pledged allegiance to Ali under public pressure.[175][176] Other reports suggest that Tahlah and Zubayr, both companions of Muhammad, jumped ship after Ali began to redistribute the wealth among Muslims by reversing Uthman's lavish entitlements for the ruling elite, including those of Talhah and Zubayr.[177] Some reports indicate that Ali had barred his supporters from pressing anyone to give their pledge.[175][178]

It has been pointed out that Ali inherited the grave internal problems of Uthman's reign.[179][166] In particular, Ali immediately faced an armed insurrection from Talhah and Zubayr, and opposition from Muyawiya. The first four caliphs are referred to by the Sunni as the Rashidun (rightly-guided) Caliphs, though only Ali is recognized by the Shia.[180]

Later Successions[]

Abu Bakr's view that the caliphate should remain within the Quraysh tribe persisted in later generations. However, this definition of the caliphate had its costs.[129] First, it facilitated the rise of the Umayyads who, despite being of the Quraysh, were late converts to Islam and among Muhammad's most staunch enemies in early Islam.[129][164] Their rise to power marginalized both the Muhajirun and the Ansar, and reduced the caliphate, as an institution, to no more than a worldly kingship, according to M. Cooperson.[129]

Second, Abu Bakr's argument was, in part, based on the kinship of the Quraysh with Muhammad.[113][116][117] In this regard, Ail's claim to the caliphate, as Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was far stronger than Abu Bakr's.[134][102][129] Indeed, the recurring pattern in the Quran is that the successors to the past prophets are elected through divine intervention: God chooses the successors of the past prophets from their families, whether those successors become prophets or not.[181] Ali eventually became caliph, but not in time to stop the rise of the Umayyads.[129]

After assuming power, Ali dismissed most of Uthman's governors whom he considered corrupt, including Muawiya, Uthman's cousin.[182][183] Under a lenient Uthman, Muawiya had built a parallel power structure in Damascus that mirrored the despotism of the Roman Byzantine empire.[182][184][185] Muawiya defied Ali's orders and, once the negotiations failed, the two sides engaged in a bloody and lengthy civil war.[165] After Ali's assassination in 661 CE, his son, Hasan, was elected caliph and adopted a similar approach towards Muawiya.[165][186] However, as Muawiya began to buy the loyalties of military commanders and tribal chiefs, Hasan's military campaign suffered defections in large numbers.[187][188][189] The situation was exacerbated by the spread of false reports through Muawiya's network of spies.[189] After a failed assassination attempt on his life, a wounded Hasan ceded the caliphate to Muawiya.[189][190] Notably, under their agreement, Muawiya appointed Hasan as his successor.[189][191] However, Hasan died in 669 CE at the age of forty six, before Muawiya.[192] It is believed that he was poisoned at the instigation of Muawiya.[192][193][194][187]

Before his death in 680 CE, Muawiya made arrangements for the succession of his son, Yazid, a debaucher who openly violated the Islamic norms.[195][196][192][197] In particular, Muawiya used intimidation to obtain the approval of the sons of Abu Bakr and Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, and other key figures, with the notable exception of Hasan's younger brother, Husayn. After Muawiya's death, Husayn publicly denounced Yazid's legitimacy. In 680 CE, after surrounding them in Karbala and imposing a crippling thirst by cutting off their access to water, Yazid's forces slaughtered Husayn, alongside his family and his small group of supporters.[198][199][200] The women and children were taken prisoner and marched to Kufa and then Damascus, some of whom perished from mistreatment.[198][201][202] The tragic death of Husayn and his supporters marked the Second Fitna, which finalized the schism between the Sunni and the Shia. The latter consider Husayn as their third Imam.[151][165]

The succession subsequently transformed under the Umayyads from an elective/appointed position to being effectively hereditary within the family.[203]

Twelver Shia view[]

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Twelver Shia is the largest branch of the Shia Islam, with about 85% of the Shia population.[204]

In the Twelver Shia view, after a prophet's death, a divinely-appointed successor is necessary to guide the faithful towards the righteous path. Without a divinely-appointed successor, the prophetic mission and God's favor to the faithful would both remain incomplete.[205] Of course, as with the faith itself, the faithful are endowed with the free will not to follow this successor, to their own disadvantage.[206]

The Twelver Shia view is that, similar to the past prophets in the Quran,[72] the succession to Muhammad was settled by divine appointment, rather than by consensus.[181][207] Moreover, as with the past prophets in the Quran,[72] God chose Muhammad's successor from his family.[181][207] The verses of purification, Mubahala, and Mawadda in the Quran, and the well-attested hadith of the Thaqalayn and the hadith of the Ark are among the many that testify to the exalted status of Muhammad's family.[208][209][22][210]

In particular, the Shia view is that Muhammad announced his cousin and son-in-law, Ali, as his rightful successor shortly before his death at the event of Ghadir Khumm and also early in his prophetic mission at the event of Dhul Asheera.[211] In particular, a number of Shia and Sunni hadiths relate that it was shortly after the public announcement at Ghadir Khumm that the verse of Ikmal was revealed to Muhammad, declaring the completion of God's favor to the faithful.[212] Nevertheless, for the unity of Islam,[213][214][50][215] Ali remained largely silent after his right to the caliphate was usurped in his absence at Saqifah, in what has been criticized as a "backroom deal" and a "coup."[125][126][127][128][216][130][131]

Ali's distinctions are amply attested to in the Sunni accounts.[217] In Mecca, a young Ali was the first male to embrace Islam and the person who offered his support when Muhammad first presented Islam to his relatives.[218][219][220][221][38] Later, he facilitated Muhammad's safe escape to Medina by risking his life as the decoy.[222][223][224][225][226] In Medina, Ali sworn a pact a brotherhood with Muhammad and later took the hand of Muhammad's daughter, Fatimah, in marriage.[227][74][228] Ali commonly acted as Muhammad's secretary in Medina, and served as his deputy during the expedition of Tabuk.[55] Saluted as the lion of God, Ali is often considered the most able warrior in Muhammad's army and the two were the only Muslim men who represented Islam against a Christian delegation from Najran.[229][230][231][232] Ali's role in the collection of the Quran, the central text of Islam, is deemed as one of his key contributions.[233] When, following the revelation of the surah of at-Tawbah, Abu Bakr was sent to Mecca to give an ultimatum to the disbelievers, Muhammad sent out Ali to take over this responsibility, according to Musnad Ahmad.[234][235] The author Hazleton suggests that when Umar, and those who sided with him, prevented Muhammad from dictating his will on his deathbed, it was likely out of the fear that, "If Ali turned out to be the designated heir, no body in that room wanted it put into writing."[108][236][237][238][218] This opinion is echoed by Madelung.[239]

In the Shia view, while direct revelation ended with Muhammad's death, Ali remained the righteous guide towards God, similar to the successors of the past prophets in the Quran.[207] After Muhammad's death, Ali inherited Muhammad's divine knowledge and his authority to correctly interpret the Quran, especially its allegorical and metaphorical verses (mutashabihat).[240][241] In Muhammad's words, reported both by Sunni and Shia sources, "I am the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate."[242][233]

God had commanded obedience to Muhammad as the righteous guide, and this grave responsibility towards Muslims necessitated Muhammad's infallibility. Likewise, as the righteous guide after Muhmmad, Ali was infallible. Indeed, Ali was one of the Ahl al-Kisa, whom the Quran elevated above sins and wrongdoing in the verse of purification.[243][244]

Imamate[]

After Muhammad, according to the Shia, Ali was appointed as an Imam, namely, the guide towards God and His vicar on the earth. Imamate, as a divine authority, appears in multiple verse of the Quran, e.g., verse 21:73:[72][245]

We made them Imams, guiding by Our command, and We revealed to them the performance of good deeds, the maintenance of prayers, and the giving of zakat, and they used to worship Us.

In the Twelver Shia view, since the time of the first prophet, Adam, the earth has never remained without an Imam, in the form of prophets and their divinely-appointed successors. Likewise, Imamate was passed on from Ali to the next Imam, Hasan, by divinely-inspired designation (nass). At any time, there is only one Imam and his successor, if alive, is called the silent Imam.[246] After Hasan's death, Husayn and nine of his descendants are the Shia Imams, the last of whom, Mahdi, went into occultation in 260 AH (874 CE), due to the hostility of the Imam's enemies and the danger to his life.[247] His advent is awaited by the Shia and Sunni alike, although the Sunni hold different views about Mahdi.[2] In his absence, the vacuum in the Shia leadership is partly filled by marjaiyya and, more recently, wilayat al-faqqih, i.e., guardianship of the Islamic jurist.[248]

Zaydi Shia view[]

Main article: Zaidiyyah

Before his death, the fourth Shia Imam, Zayn al-Abidin, designated his son, Muhammad al-Baqir, as the next Shia Imam.[249] Zayd, a half-brother of Muhammad al-Baqir, asserted a claim to Imamate on the basis that it can belong to any descendant of Hasan or Husayn who is learned, pious and revolts against the tyrants of his time.[250][251] On this basis, his followers, known as Zaydis, consider Zayd as the rightful successor of the fourth Shia Imam, even though the fourth Imam himself did not revolt against the Umayyads and instead adopted a policy of quiescence.[252][253]

Initially, Zayd's activist approach gained him a large following. However, as he increasingly compromised with the traditionalists, some of Zayd's supporters returned to Muhammad al-Baqir.[250][254] A related incident is when two Kufan Shias asked Zayd if the first Shia Imam, Ali, was an Imam before he resorted to the sword. When Zayd refused to answer this question, the two broke their allegiance with Zayd and went back to Muhammad al-Baqir.[252] Eventually, Zayd took up arms against the Umayyads in 122 AH and was killed in Kufa by Caliph Hisham.[250]

One faction of the Zaidiyyah, the Batriyya, attempted to create a compromise between Sunni and Shia by accepting the legitimacy of the Sunni caliphs while maintaining that they were inferior to Ali. Their argument was that, while Ali was better suited to succeed Muhammad, the reigns of Abu Bakr and Umar must be acknowledged because Ali recognized them.[251] This belief, termed Imamat al-Mafdul (Imamate of the inferior), is one which has also been attributed to Zayd himself.[255][note 2]

Sunni view[]

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The general Sunni belief is that Muhammad had not chosen anyone to succeed him, instead reasoning that he had intended for the community to decide on a leader amongst themselves. However, some specific hadiths are used to justify that Muhammad intended Abu Bakr to succeed, but that he had shown this decision through his actions rather than doing so verbally.[53]

In Sunni Islam, the election of a caliph is ideally a democratic choice made by the Muslim community.[256] As this is difficult to enforce, Sunni Islam recognizes as caliph anyone who seizes power, as long as he is from the Quraysh, the tribe of Muhammad.[257] However, even the latter is not a strict requirement, given that the Ottoman Caliphs had no familial relation to the Quraysh tribe.[258] In Sunni Islam, caliphs are not viewed as infallible and can be removed from the office if their actions are deemed sinful.[256] At the same time, obedience to a caliph is a religious obligation even if the caliph is unjust.[257][259] Conversely, a judge would be considered competent solely on the basis of his appointment by the government.[259]

Historically, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali are regarded by the Sunni as the most righteous of their generation, with their merit being reflected in their caliphate. The subsequent caliphates of the Umayyads and the Abbasids, while not ideal, are seen as legitimate because they complied with the requirements of the law, kept the borders safe and the community united.[260] Indeed, while the Umayyads and the Abbasids were certainly kingships, the Sunni was more willing than others to accommodate these rulers, regardless of their legitimacy and mode of government, and in so doing the Sunni made most of Islamic history their own.[261]

Ibadi view[]

Main article: Ibadi

The Ibadi, an Islamic school distinct from Sunni and Shia,[262] believe that leadership of the Muslim community is not something which should be decided by lineage, tribal affiliations or divine selection, but rather through election by leading Muslims. They see the leaders as not being infallible and that if they fail to maintain a legitimate government in accordance to Islamic law, it is the duty of the population to remove them from power. The Rashidun Caliphs are seen as rulers who were elected in a legitimate fashion and that Abu Bakr and Umar in particular were righteous leaders. However, Uthman is viewed as having committed grave sins during the latter half of his rule and was deserving of death. Ali is also similarly understood to have lost his mandate.[263]

Their first Imam was Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi, who was selected after the group's alienation from Ali.[264] Other individuals seen as Imams include Abu Ubaidah Muslim, Abdallah ibn Yahya al-Kindi and Umar ibn Abdul Aziz.[265]

See also[]

Notes[]

  1. ^ A consideration of oral transmissions in general with some specific early Islamic reference is given in Jan Vansina's Oral Tradition as History.
  2. ^ Al-Tabari records that when asked about Abu Bakr and Umar, Zayd stated "I have not heard anyone in my family renouncing them both nor saying anything but good about them...when they were entrusted with government they behaved justly with the people and acted according to the Quran and the sunnah."[255]

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Further reading[]

Academic books[]

Shia books[]

  • Shi'a Islam (book), by Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei and Hossein Nasr, State University of New York Press, 1979
  • Al-Murāja'āt: A Shī'i-Sunni Dialogue by Sayyid 'Abdul-Husayn Sharafud-Dīn al-Mūsawi, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
  • Peshawar Nights by Sultanu'l-Wa'izin Shirazi, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
  • Ask Those Who Know by Muhammad al-Tijani, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
  • To be with the Truthful by Muhammad al-Tijani, 2000, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
  • The Shi'a: The Real Followers of the Sunnah by Muhammad al-Tijani, 2000, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
  • Imamate and Leadership by Mujtaba Musavi Lari
  • the Vicegerency of the Prophet by Rizvi, S. Saeed Akhtar, (Tehran: WOFIS, 1985) pp. 57–60.
  • Fara'id al-Simtayn by the Shia scholar Ibrahim b Muhammad b Himaway al Juwayni who died in 1322 AD/ 722 AH. (The Scale of Wisdom by M. Muhammadi Rayshahri)(Al-Tawhid Vol 8, Sāzmān-i Tablīghāt-i Islāmī (Tehran, Iran), p170)

Sunni books[]

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