Timeline of Hungarian history

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Part of a series on the
History of Hungary
Coat of arms of Hungary
Early history
  • Hungarian prehistory
  • Hungary before the Hungarians
  • Roman Pannonia
  • Hungarian conquest
Medieval
Principality895–1000
High Medieval Kingdom1000–1301
Late Medieval Kingdom1301–1526
Ottoman Wars1366–1526
Early modern
Habsburg kingdom1526–1867
Eastern kingdom1526–1570
Ottoman Hungary1541–1699
Principality of Transylvania1570–1711
Late modern
Rákóczi's War1703–1711
Revolution of 18481848–1849
Austria-Hungary1867–1918
Lands of the Crown1867–1918
World War I1914–1918
Interwar period1918–1941
First Hungarian Republic1918–1920
Hungarian Soviet Republic1919
Kingdom of Hungary1920–1946
World War II1941–1945
Contemporary
Second Hungarian Republic1946–1949
Hungarian People's Republic1949–1989
Revolution of 1956 1956
Third Hungarian Republicsince 1989
By topic
Flag of Hungary.svg Hungary portal
  • v
  • t

The timeline of Hungarian history lists the important historical events that took place in the territory of Hungary or are closely connected to the history of the country.

Before the Hungarians[]

Classical Antiquity[]

Before the Romans[]

5th century BC

Early 4th century BC

  • Celts invade Pannonia and gradually conquer the lands along the Middle Danube.[2]

3rd century BC

279 BC

  • Celts invade the Balkan Peninsula from the Middle Danube region, reaching as far as Greece.[2]

113 BC

  • The Celtic Boii control the Middle Danube region when the Cimbri move across their territory during their migration towards the Alps.[4][5]

c. 50 BC

  • The Osi, Cotini and Anarti live in the northern regions of the Great Hungarian Plain. The Dacians take control of the lands to the east of the river Tisza.[6]

c. 45 BC

  • The Dacian king, Burebista, defeats the Celtic ruler, Critasirus, and occupies lands east and north of the Middle Danube.[7]

c. 44 BC

  • Burebista dies and his kingdom disintegrates.[7][8]

Roman conquest[]

35 BC

  • The Romans force the Pannonian tribes living along the Sava into submission.[9]

Late 1st century BC

  • Roman denarii start circulating in Transdanubia.[9]

13 BC

  • The Roman generals Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Tiberius crush the Pannonian tribes' revolt between the Sava and the Dráva. The young Pannonians are captured and sold as slaves.[10]

c. 12 BC

  • The Germanic tribe of Marcomanni force the Boii to abandon the lands north of the Middle Danube.[11]

11 BC

10 BC

  • The Roman general Marcus Vinicius launches an expedition across the Danube, forcing the Celtic tribes of the Great Hungarian Plain to make an alliance with the Roman Empire.[14]

6 AD

6–9

  • The Romans force the Illyrian tribes one by one into submission.[17]

Roman Pannonia and its neighbors[]

8/9

  • Illyricum is divided into two along the Sava. The new Roman province incorporating the lands between the Sava and the Middle Danube is known as Pannonia.[18][19]

10s

  • The Sarmatian tribe of the Iazyges settle in the plains between the Danube and the Tisza and force the Dacians to withdraw to Transylvania.[18]
  • Emperor Tiberius settles veterans and civilians at Scarbantia (now Sopron) and Salla (now Zalalövő) on the Amber Road.[20]

c. 18–c. 50 AD

  • Allied with Rome, Vannius, king of the Germanic Quadi, forces the tribes of the Great Hungarian Plain to pay tribute to him.[21]

40s–50s

  • Emperor Claudius establishes the colonia (or town) of Savaria (now Szombathely) on the Amber Road, settling veterans of the Legio XV Apollinaris in the town. Colonists from Aquilea and other north Italian towns move to Savaria and natives also live in the town.[22]
  • Pliny the Elder lists the Boii, Azali, Eravisci, Cotini, Arabiates and Hercuniates among the native tribes living in Transdanubia in his Natural History. The native tribes are organized in civitates peregrinae (semi-autonomous districts supervised by a Roman military officer).[23][24]

c. 50

  • Emperor Claudius forbids the governor of Pannonia, Sextus Palpellius Hister, to assist Vannius against his rebellious nephews, Sido and Italicus. Vannius is forced to abdicate and flee to Pannonia. His nephews divide his realm among themselves.[25]
  • Natives are first recruited as auxiliaries in the Pannonian regions north of the Dráva.[18]
  • Auxiliary forts are established at Arrabona, Brigetio and Aquincum (now Győr, Szőny and Budapest in Hungary).[26]

68–69

c. 73

88

  • The Marcomanni and the Quadi refuse to support the Romans during Domitian's Dacian War. Emperor Domitian invade their territory, but he abandons the military campaign without defeating the Germanic peoples.[28]

89

  • The Germanic tribes wage war against the Iazyges with Roman support.[29]

92/93

  • The Iazyges invade Pannonia and route a Roman legion. Domitian comes to Pannonia and defeats the Iazyges.[30]

98

  • Emperor Trajan appoints new kings to rule the Marcomanni and Quadi.[31]

c. 100

  • A new fortress is built at Brigetio and the Legio XI Claudia is transferred to there. The Legio X Gemina is stationed at Aquincum.[32]
  • Gorsium (now Tác) is made the center for the imperial cult in Pannonia.[33]

c. 104

106

  • The newly established Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix replaces the Legio XI Claudia in Brigetio after the fall of Decebal's Dacian kingdom. The Iazyges take possession of the lowlands to the east of the Tisza. Roman watch towers are erected across the Middle Danube.[35][36]

117

117–119

  • The Iazyges make raids against Pannonia Inferior. Emperor Hadrian charges Marcius Turbo with the united command of Pannonia Inferior and Dacia to secure the coordination of military actions against the Iazyges and their allies, the Roxolani.[38]

119

124

c. 135–c. 140

  • The Marcomanni and Quadi make raids against both Pannonian provinces.[40]

136–138

  • Hadrian's designated heir, Lucius Aelius, is made the governor of both Pannonian provinces.[40]

c. 140

  • Hadrian appoints a new king to rule the Quadi.[41]

161

160s

c. 166

  • Start of the Marcomannic Wars. The Germanic Lombards and Ubii attack Pannonia near Brigetio, but the Roman troops defeat them. Ballomar, the king of the Marcomanni, and envoys from 10 other tribes dwelling along the Roman border enter into negotiations with the governor of Pannonia Superior, Marcus Jallius Bassus.[45][46]

167–171

  • The Marcomanni, Quadi and Iazyges make a series of raids against Pannonia and Dacia, capturing tens of thousands of Roman provincials and seizing much booty.[47]

167–168

  • Marcus Aurelius and his co-emperor, Lucius Verus, are planning to launch a military expedition across the Danube, but Lucius dies unexpectedly and a plague forces Marcus Aurelius to return to Italy.[48]

171

  • The Quadi's request for free access to the Roman markets is denied.[49]

171–175

  • Marcus Aurelius writes parts of his Meditations while staying in Pannonia during his campaigns against the neighboring Germanic tribes.[50]

172

  • Marcus Aurelius defeats the Quadi, forcing them to make a peace and release their Roman prisoners. He appoints Furtius to be their new king. Groups of Quadi are allowed to settle in the Danubian provinces.[51]

173

  • Marcus Aurelius forces the Marcomanni to make peace and abandon the lands along the northern banks of the Danube. The Quadi dethrone Furtius and elect Ariogaesus their new ruler.[52]
  • Winter. Iazyges invade Pannonia across the Danube. Ariogaesus makes alliance with the Iazyges, but the Romans capture him.[53]

174

  • Early. The Romans route the Iazyges. The Iazyges capture their king, Banadaspus, and elect Zanticus his successor.[53]

c. 174

  • The remnants of the Cotini and the Germanic Naristae are settled in Pannonia.[53]

175

  • The Iazyges agrees to release their Roman prisoners and to abandon the lands along the eastern banks of the Danube.[53]

177–178

  • Germanic tribes and Iazyges make raids against Pannonia.[54]

178

  • Summer. Marcus Aurelius and his co-emperor, Commodus, come to Pannonia to command the local troops in person.[54]
  • Late. 40,000 Roman troops occupy the land of the Marcomanni and Quadi and winter there.[54][55]

180

  • Spring. Marcus Aurelius prevents the Quadi from migrating to the north.[54]
  • Autumn. Marcus Aurelius' successor, Commodus, makes peace with the Marcomanni and Quadi. He appoints Roman centurions to control the two tribes' activities before marching to Rome.[54][56]

c. 185

  • Watchtowers are erected along the Middle Danube.[57]

193

  • April 9. After Commodus' death, the governor of Pannonia Superior, Septimius Severus is proclaimed emperor by the Pannonian legions.[58]
  • June. After seizing Rome, Septimius Severus musters primarily Pannonian troops to the Praetorian Guard.[58]

194

  • Septimius Severus grants the rank of colonia to Aquincum.[59][60]

196

  • Septimius Severus sends his son and heir, Caracalla, to Pannonia before his campaign against Clodius Albinus.[61]

202

  • Septimius Severus personally inaugurates a new temple in Gorsium.[62]

212

  • Caracalla grants Roman citizenship to all natives, but the conquered peoples (or dediticii) in the Roman Empire.[62]

212/213

  • The Quadi invade Pannonia, but Emperor Caracalla had their king, Gaiobomarus, executed.[63]

214

  • Caracalla makes the river Rába the new boundary between the two Pannonian provinces.[64]

c. 230

  • Iazyges invade Pannonia.[65]

248

  • Emperor Philip the Arab appoints Pacatianus the commander of the troops both in Pannonia Inferior and in Moesia Superior. The Illyriciani—the troops of the Danubian provinces—proclaim Pacatianus emperor, but they murder him when the Emperor appoints one of their number, Decius, their commander.[66][67]

249

  • Summer. The Illyriciani proclaim Decius emperor.[68]

250s

  • Quadi make raids against Pannonia.[69]

258–260

  • The westward expansion of the Goths forces the Germanic Gepids and the Sarmatian Roxolani to move to the Carpathian Basin. Sarmatian and Germanic tribes make a series of raids against Pannonia. Emperor Gallienus settles groups of Marcomanni in Pannonia.[70]

260s

  • Clashes between the Roxolani, Gepids, Iazyges and Vandals along the borders of Pannonia and Dacia.[71]

Early 270s

  • Emperor Aurelian orders the evacuation of the province of Dacia.[72]

c. 278

  • Iazyges invade Pannonia.[73]

282

  • Emperor Carus defeats the Sarmatians and the Quadi.[74]

285

  • The Sarmatians invade Pannonia, but Emperor Diocletian defeats them.[75]

290

  • The Goths and the Taifali wage war against the Vandals and Gepids.[76]

293

  • A Roman fort is built on the left bank of the Danube opposite Aquincum.[77]
  • Diocletian defeats the Sarmatians.[78]

294

295

  • Carpians are settled around Sopianae.[80]

Late 290s

303

  • February 24. Diocletian forbids Christian worships in the Roman Empire.[82]
  • June 8. Bishop Quirinus of Sescia (now Sisak in Croatia) is executed in Savaria.[83]

305

  • Galerius and Constantine invade Sarmatian territory.[84]

308

314

320s-330s

  • New fortifications are built on plateaus along the Middle Danube.[86]

322

  • May–June. A Sarmatian chieftain, Rausimodus, besieges Campona (in present-day Budapest), but Constantine forces him to abandon the siege.[87]

332

  • The Goths invade Sarmatian territory, forcing the Argaragantes (the ruling Sarmatians) to arm their unfree subjects, the Limigantes. The Romans intervene in the war on the Sarmatians' behalf and defeat the Goths. The Limigantes rose up and defeat the Argaragantes who flee to Vandal and Roman territory.[88][89]

332–334

  • After a series of clashes with the Romans, the Sarmatians accept Roman protectorate.[88]

330s-350s

  • The Vandals, Gepids and Goths take possession of the northern regions of the Great Hungarian Plain.[88]

356

357

  • Summer. Emperor Constantius II comes to Sirmium to conduct negotiations with the Quadi and the Sarmatians.[91]
  • Winter. The Quadi and the Sarmatians make a raid against the Pannonian provinces.[91][92]

358

  • April. Constantius II invade the Limigantes' territory and Roman troops from Pannonia Valeria attack the Quadi, forcing their leaders to pay homage to the Emperor.[92][93]
  • Winter. The Limigantes make raids against their neighbors.[94]

359

  • April. Constantius II meets with the envoys of the Limigantes near Aquincum. The envoys try to capture him, but his retainers massacre them. The Romans invade Sarmatian territory, destroying their settlements.[95][96]

365

  • The Quadi and the Sarmatians invade Roman territories.[97]

c. 367

  • Emperor Valentinian I's magister militum, Aequitius, had new fortresses built along the Middle Danube.[98]

374

  • Early. The Quadi protest against the erection of a Roman fortress on their territory, but Dux Maximianus kills their king Gabinius.[99]
  • July. The Quadi invade Pannonia Valeria and slaughter or capture the local peasants.[99]

375

  • August–November. Valentinian I invade Quadi territories.[100]
  • November 17. Valentinian I dies in Brigetio during the peace negotiations with the Quadi envoys.[100]

Late Antiquity[]

c. 375

  • Roman coins cease to circulate in Pannonia to the north of the Dráva.[101]

378

379–380

  • Tribesmen make plundering raids against Pannonia.[102]

383

  • Pannonian grain is traded for wine in northern Italy.[103]

395

  • The attacks of the Marcomanni, Hun and Goth armies devastate Pannonia.[104]

401

  • The Vandals march through Pannonia to Italy.[104]

402

405

  • The army of the Goth Radagaisus marches through Pannonia and attacks the Western Roman Empire.[104]

408

  • The Visigoths return to Italy.[104]

c. 420s

427

433

442

  • Sirmium is under the control of the Huns.[108]

c.450s

  • Goths are settled in large numbers by Marcian in Pannonia.[109]
  • After Attila's death, three Ostrogoth kingdoms come into existence. Western Pannonia is ruled by Theodemir, controls the center region, the eastern parts of Pannonia belong to king Valamir.[110]
  • Theoderic the Great, the son of the Ostrogoth King Theodemir, was presumably born in Pannonia.[111]

454

455-456

469

  • After Valamir's death, the Ostrogoths defeat the armies of the Germanic and Sarmatian tribes in the Battle of Bolia.[114]

474

  • The Ostrogoths led by Theoderic migrate from Pannonia to Lower Moesia.[115]

547

  • The Langobards settle in Pannonia, permitted by Justinian I.[116]

c.565

  • At the end of the reign of Justinian I, the Gepid-controlled Pannonian settlement of Sirmium is still a significant city, subsequently occupied by Justin II.[113]

Early Middle Ages[]

566/567

  • The Longobard king, Alboin, sends envoys to the Avar khagan, Baian, offering an alliance against the Gepids to him. Baian accepts the offer only after Gepidia is promised to him.[117]

567

568

  • April. The Longobards and masses of Gepids, Sarmatians, Suebi and other peoples leave Pannonia for Italy. The Avars take possession of Pannonia.[119]

582

  • The fall of Byzantine Sirmium to the Avars.[120]

776

  • A Lombard lord, Aio, seeks refuge in Avar territory after a Lombard revolt against the Franks collapsed.[121]

782

  • The Avar khagan and send envoys to Charlemagne to Paderborn.[121][122]

788

  • Frank and Bavarian troops defeat an Avar army near the river Ybbs.[123]

791

  • Late August. Charlemagne's son, King Pepin of Italy, makes a raid against Avar territory.[124]
  • Autumn. Charlemagne invades Avar territory, reaching as far as the river Rába, but an epidemic forces him to return to the Carolingian Empire.[124]

795/796

  • Rebels murder the khagan and the jugurrus.[125]

795

796

  • Early. The Avar tudun swears fealty to Charlemagne and converts to Christianity.[126]
  • Summer. Pepin of Italy invades Avar territory, forcing the khagan to yield without resistance and chasing Avar leaders as far as the river Tisza. Paulinus II, Patriarch of Aquileia and other bishops in Pepin's army decide to start proselytizing among the Avars.[127]

799

early 9th century

803

  • Charlemagne sends an army to Pannonia. The Avar tudun and his Slav and Avar retainers come to Regensburg to pay homage to Charlemagne.[130]

c. 804

  • Krum, Khan of Bulgaria, invades Avar territory and defeats an Avar army.[131]

805

  • February. Charlemagne cedes the territory between Sabaria (now Szombathely in Hungary) and Carnuntum (now Petronell-Carnuntum in Austria) to the Christian Avar kapkhan, Theodorus, and his people whom Slavs forced to leave their homeland.[132]
  • September 21. Charlemagne restores the khagan's authority over the Avars. The khagan converts to Christianity at the Fischa.[132]

811

  • Spring. Charlemagne sends an army to Pannonia to prevent further clashes between the Avars and the Slavs.[133]
  • November. The envoys of the Avar khagan and tudun and of the chiefs of the Slavs living along the Danube appear in Charlemagne's court in Aachen.[134][135]

822

  • Envoys of Slav tribes (among them the Moravians and the Praedenecenti) and of the Avars come to the court of Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious, in Regensburg.[136]

824

  • Khan Omurtag of Bulgaria sends an embassy to Louis the Pious, offering peace. Louis the Pious sends an envoy to Bulgaria.[137]

825

  • May. Negotiations about the borders of the Carolingian Empire and Bulgaria in Aachen.[138]

827

  • The Bulgars sail up the Dráva and destroy the lands on both sides of the river.[138]

828

  • Louis the Pious's son, Louis the German, launches an unsuccessful military campaign against the Bulgars.[139]

829

  • The Bulgars destroy villages along the Dráva.[139]

830s

  • Burials with consistent east–west orientation spread in Pannonia.[140]

833

c. 837

838

  • After Radbod defeats Ratimir, Pribina and Radbod are reconciled. Pribina receives a large estate in fief on the Zala River.[143]

early 840s

  • Pribina gathers people on his domains and builds the fortress Mosaburg on the Zala (now Zalavár).[144]

848

  • Early. The wandering Saxon priest, Gottschalk of Orbais, stays in Pannonia.[145]
  • October 12. Louis the German reward Pribina with the complete ownership of his estates in Pannonia.[146]

850

  • January 24. consecrates a church dedicated to Mary the Virgin in Mosaburg.[147]

860

  • May 8. Louis the German grants 20 peasant households near Savaria to the Benedictine .[148]
  • November 20. Louis the German grants Savaria and other settlements in Pannonia to .[148]

860s

  • Offerings of food and drink disappear in burials in Pannonia.[140]

860/861

  • Pribina dies fighting against the Moravians. His son, Kocel, inherits his estates.[149]

866–867

869

  • Pope Hadrian II sanctions the use of Old Church Slavonic in liturgy. Methodius returns to Mosaburg as papal legate, but Kocel sends him back to Rome, requesting the Pope to appoint Methodius bishop of Pannonia. The Pope makes Methodius with jurisdiction in Pannonia and Moravia.[151]

870

873

c. 876

Hungarian (or Magyar) "pre-history"[]

Main article: Hungarian prehistory

early 9th century

c. 830 (?)

  • After being defeated by the Pechenegs, the Magyars settle in Etelköz (in the Pontic steppes) and get rid of Khazar suzerainty. The Kabars—a group of peoples who rose up against the Khagan—join them.[157][158]

837

  • The Bulgarians hire Magyar warriors to prevent a group of Byzantine prisoners from returning to their homeland across the Lower Danube, but the Byzantines defeat the Magyars.[159]

c. 861

  • Methodius comes across Magyar raiders in the Crimea.[160]

862

c. 870

  • The Magyars dominate the steppes between the Lower Danube and the river "Atil" (most probably the Don River). Their tribal confederation is headed by a paramount chief, the kende, and a military leader, the gyula.[160][155]

881

c. 892

  • According to scholarly theories, the first Magyar groups settle in the Carpathian Basin (in the lowlands east of the river Tisza).[165]

892

  • Magyar horsemen support Arnulf, King of East Francia against King Svatopluk I of Moravia.[166][167]

c. 894

  • Magyar raiders destroy Pannonia in alliance with Svatopluk I. After the Magyar leaders, Árpád and Kurszán conclude an alliance with the Byzantines against King Simeon I of Bulgaria, Magyar troops invade Bulgaria.[166][168]

Medieval Hungary[]

Conquest and raids[]

Main articles: Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin, Hungarian invasions of Europe, and Principality of Hungary
See also: Glad (duke), Gelou, and Menumorut

Hungarian chronicles written centuries after the events contain contradictory stories about the Conquest. Among them, the Gesta Hungarorum provides the most detailed narration, but its reliability is debated.[169] The timeline only presents events verified by contemporaneous sources.

c. 895

  • Bulgarians and Pechenegs invade Etelköz while the bulk of the Magyar army is away on a military campaign. The Magyars leave Etelköz and cross the Carpathian Mountains to settle in the lowlands east of the Middle Danube.[165][170]

896

899

  • Summer. Arnulf persuades the Magyars (or Hungarians) to invade the Po Valley (in Italy).[172]
  • September 24. Battle of Brenta: the Hungarians route Arnulf's opponent, King Berengar I of Italy.[172]

900

902

902–907

  • The Hungarians destroy Moravia.[174]

904

  • The Bavarians murder Kurszán at a banquet.[165][173]

907

  • July 4–5. Battle of Brezalauspurc: the Hungarians annihilate a large Bavarian army and take control of the lands as far as the Enns.[173][175]

926

  • Henry I, King of East Francia, agrees to pay an annual tribute to the Hungarians to prevent their raids.[176]

932

  • Henry I denies to pay further tributes.[173]

933

934

  • The Hungarians and Pechenegs make a joint plundering raid against the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines agrees to pay a yearly tribute.[177]

c. 948

  • A high-ranking Magyar chieftain, the horka Bulcsú, is baptised in Constantinople, but he continues to make raids against the Byzantine Empire.[178][179]

c. 949

  • The second-ranking Magyar chieftain, Gylas, is baptised in Constantinople. The Ecumenical Patriarch consecrates a Greek monk, Hierotheos, bishop of Tourkia (or Hungary) and Hierotheos accompanies Gylas back to Hungary.[179][180]

c. 950

  • Árpád's grandson, Fajsz, is the paramount leader of the confederation of the seven Magyar tribes and the Kabars.[181]

c. 955

955

  • August 10. Battle of Lechfeld: Otto I, King of Germany, annihilates the Hungarian raiders near Augsburg.[159]

960s–990s

  • The Bavarians gradually seize the territory between the Enns and Leitha rivers.[183]

970

  • March. Battle of Arcadiopolis: the Byzantines defeat the united Rus', Bulgarian and Hungarian armies.[184][185]

early 970s

973

c. 997

  • Géza's son, Stephen, marries Gisela, a relative of Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor who is accompanied by German knights to Hungary.[188]

997

  • Géza dies and his kinsman, Koppány, contests Stephen's right to succeed his father. German knights assist Stephen to defeat Koppány.[189]

c. 1000

  • The establishment of the earliest Benedictine abbey, Pannonhalma and of the first Roman Catholic dioceses (Veszprém, Esztergom and Győr).[note 2][190]

High Middle Ages[]

Main article: Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)

1000

1000s

  • Stephen I issues his earliest decrees, ordering the building of churches and prohibiting pagan practices.[note 4][190]

1002–1009

  • The first counties—territorial units of royal administration—are mentioned in royal charters. Each county was headed by an appointed royal official, styled ispán (or count).[191]

c. 1003

  • Ajtony a chieftain ruling Banat is baptised in Vidin. He establishes a Greek monastery in his seat at Morisena (now Cenad in Romania).[192]

1003

  • Stephen I invades Transylvania, forcing his maternal uncle, Gyula, into submission.[189]

1018

  • Stephen I opens Hungary to pilgrims coming from Western Europe to Jerusalem.[193]

c. 1020

1020s

c. 1028[note 5]

1030

  • Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor, invades Hungary, but the Hungarians repel his attack.[198]

1031

  • Stephen I's son and heir, Emeric, dies unexpectedly.[198]

1030s

  • Stephen I appoints his sister's son, the Venetian Peter Orseolo, to be his heir. Stephen I's cousin, Vazul, is executed and Vazul's sons—Andrew, Béla and Levente—are forced into exile.[199][200]

Notes[]

  1. ^ Archaeologist Béla Miklós Szőke proposes that a Magyar groups has already settled along the Upper Tisza before their raid.
  2. ^ The Pannonhalma Archabbey and the bishopric of Veszprém may have been set up already during Géza's reign.
  3. ^ Alternatively, Stephen may have been crowned on 1 January 1001.
  4. ^ The dating of Stephen I's first decrees is uncertain.
  5. ^ According to scholarly theories, Ajtony may have been defeated either in 1008 or around 1018.

References[]

  1. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 2.
  2. ^ a b Mócsy 1974, p. 4.
  3. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 11–12.
  4. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 15.
  5. ^ Wilkes 1992, p. 15.
  6. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 19–20.
  7. ^ a b Mócsy 1974, p. 19.
  8. ^ Burns 2003, pp. 195, 198.
  9. ^ a b Mócsy 1974, p. 33.
  10. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 34.
  11. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 35.
  12. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 33–34.
  13. ^ Kontler 1999, p. 26.
  14. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 35–36.
  15. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 37.
  16. ^ Burns 2003, p. 206.
  17. ^ Wilkes 1992, p. 207.
  18. ^ a b c Mócsy 1974, p. 39.
  19. ^ Wilkes 1992, p. 209.
  20. ^ Burns 2003, p. 208.
  21. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 40.
  22. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 76–77, 79.
  23. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 53–55.
  24. ^ Burns 2003, p. 210.
  25. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 40–41.
  26. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 49–50.
  27. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 41.
  28. ^ a b Mócsy 1974, p. 80.
  29. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 84.
  30. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 85.
  31. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 89.
  32. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 88, 92.
  33. ^ Burns 2003, p. 222.
  34. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 92.
  35. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 92, 95.
  36. ^ Burns 2003, p. 218.
  37. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 99.
  38. ^ a b Mócsy 1974, p. 100.
  39. ^ Burns 2003, p. 220.
  40. ^ a b Mócsy 1974, p. 102.
  41. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 103.
  42. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 183.
  43. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 183–184.
  44. ^ Burns 2003, p. 229.
  45. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 186.
  46. ^ Burns 2003, p. 234.
  47. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 187, 194.
  48. ^ Burns 2003, p. 240.
  49. ^ Burns 2003, p. 231.
  50. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 188.
  51. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 188–189.
  52. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 189.
  53. ^ a b c d Mócsy 1974, p. 190.
  54. ^ a b c d e Mócsy 1974, p. 191.
  55. ^ Burns 2003, p. 241.
  56. ^ Burns 2003, p. 244.
  57. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 196.
  58. ^ a b Wilkes 1992, p. 259.
  59. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 218.
  60. ^ Burns 2003, p. 221.
  61. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 201.
  62. ^ a b Burns 2003, p. 245.
  63. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 198–199.
  64. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 198.
  65. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 202.
  66. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 204.
  67. ^ Wilkes 1992, p. 261.
  68. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 205.
  69. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 203.
  70. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 206–209.
  71. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 209.
  72. ^ Syvänne 2015, p. 169.
  73. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 267.
  74. ^ Syvänne 2015, p. 177.
  75. ^ Syvänne 2015, p. 184.
  76. ^ Syvänne 2015, p. 195.
  77. ^ Syvänne 2015, p. 205.
  78. ^ Syvänne 2015, p. 206.
  79. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 272.
  80. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 306.
  81. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 273–274.
  82. ^ Syvänne 2015, p. 222.
  83. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 328.
  84. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 276.
  85. ^ a b Mócsy 1974, p. 277.
  86. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 282.
  87. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 277–278.
  88. ^ a b c Mócsy 1974, p. 279.
  89. ^ Syvänne 2015, p. 289.
  90. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 286.
  91. ^ a b Mócsy 1974, p. 287.
  92. ^ a b Syvänne 2015, p. 355.
  93. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 288–289.
  94. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 289.
  95. ^ Mócsy 1974, pp. 289–290.
  96. ^ Syvänne 2015, pp. 356–357.
  97. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 291.
  98. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 292.
  99. ^ a b Mócsy 1974, p. 294.
  100. ^ a b Mócsy 1974, p. 295.
  101. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 343.
  102. ^ a b Mócsy 1974, p. 340.
  103. ^ Mócsy 1974, p. 342.
  104. ^ a b c d e Crabtree 2013, p. 165.
  105. ^ Toch 2012, p. 157.
  106. ^ a b Lengyel & Radan 1980, p. 398.
  107. ^ Hajnóczi & Redő 1998, p. 12.
  108. ^ a b Kardaras 2018, p. 30.
  109. ^ Heather 2005, pp. 356–357.
  110. ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 140.
  111. ^ Arnold 2014, p. 144.
  112. ^ Wolfram 1990, p. 258.
  113. ^ a b Johnson 2012, pp. 92–114.
  114. ^ Wolfram 1990, p. 264.
  115. ^ Wolfram 1997, p. 199.
  116. ^ Pohl 2018, p. 107.
  117. ^ Pohl 2018, pp. xiii, 60–61.
  118. ^ Pohl 2018, p. 61.
  119. ^ Pohl 2018, pp. xiv, 61.
  120. ^ Kardaras 2018, p. 43.
  121. ^ a b Pohl 2018, p. 378.
  122. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 9.
  123. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 10.
  124. ^ a b Szőke 2014, p. 11.
  125. ^ Szőke 2014, pp. 12–13.
  126. ^ a b Szőke 2014, p. 13.
  127. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 14.
  128. ^ Szőke 2014, pp. 15–16.
  129. ^ Pohl 2018, pp. 388–389.
  130. ^ Pohl 2018, pp. 386–387.
  131. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 18.
  132. ^ a b Szőke 2014, p. 20.
  133. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 24.
  134. ^ Szőke 2014, pp. 25–26.
  135. ^ Pohl 2018, p. 389.
  136. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 41.
  137. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 44.
  138. ^ a b Szőke 2014, p. 45.
  139. ^ a b Szőke 2014, p. 46.
  140. ^ a b Szőke 2014, p. 103.
  141. ^ Szőke 2014, pp. 51–53.
  142. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 53.
  143. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 54.
  144. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 55.
  145. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 63.
  146. ^ Szőke 2014, pp. 59, 61.
  147. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 61.
  148. ^ a b Szőke 2014, p. 50.
  149. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 81.
  150. ^ Szőke 2014, pp. 91–92.
  151. ^ Szőke 2014, pp. 93–95.
  152. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 95.
  153. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 96.
  154. ^ Szőke 2014, pp. 96, 98.
  155. ^ a b Fodor 2009, p. 55.
  156. ^ Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, p. 72.
  157. ^ Fodor 2009, p. 57.
  158. ^ Spinei 2003, pp. 42–43.
  159. ^ a b Spinei 2003, p. 47.
  160. ^ a b Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, p. 73.
  161. ^ Fodor 2009, p. 64.
  162. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 114.
  163. ^ Fodor 2009, p. 65.
  164. ^ Spinei 2003, p. 51.
  165. ^ a b c Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, p. 77.
  166. ^ a b Fodor 2009, p. 70.
  167. ^ Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, p. 74.
  168. ^ Spinei 2003, pp. 51–52.
  169. ^ Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, p. 75.
  170. ^ Spinei 2003, pp. 52–54.
  171. ^ Szőke 2014, p. 119.
  172. ^ a b Spinei 2003, p. 68.
  173. ^ a b c d e f g Fodor 2009, p. 75.
  174. ^ a b c Spinei 2003, p. 69.
  175. ^ Spinei 2003, pp. 70, 72.
  176. ^ Spinei 2003, p. 75.
  177. ^ Fodor 2009, p. 79.
  178. ^ Spinei 2003, p. 78.
  179. ^ a b Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, pp. 129–130.
  180. ^ Spinei 2003, pp. 78–79.
  181. ^ Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, pp. 104–105, 129–131.
  182. ^ Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, p. 255.
  183. ^ Spinei 2003, pp. 83–84.
  184. ^ Spinei 2003, p. 82.
  185. ^ Stephenson 2000, p. 51.
  186. ^ Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, pp. 136–137.
  187. ^ Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, p. 137.
  188. ^ Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, pp. 148, 202.
  189. ^ a b c Kontler 1999, p. 53.
  190. ^ a b Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, pp. 155, 333.
  191. ^ Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, pp. 153–154.
  192. ^ Stephenson 2000, p. 65.
  193. ^ Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, p. 233.
  194. ^ Kontler 1999, p. 55.
  195. ^ Nemerkényi 2004, p. 34.
  196. ^ Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, pp. 149, 357.
  197. ^ Kontler 1999, pp. 53, 56.
  198. ^ a b Kontler 1999, p. 58.
  199. ^ Kontler 1999, pp. 58–59.
  200. ^ Berend, Urbańczyk & Wiszewski 2013, p. 163.

Sources[]

  • Arnold, Jonathan J. (2014). Theoderic and the Roman Imperial Restoration. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107054400.
  • Berend, Nora; Urbańczyk, Przemysław; Wiszewski, Przemysław (2013). Central Europe in the High Middle Ages: Bohemia, Hungary and Poland, c. 900-c. 1300. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78156-5.
  • Burns, Thomas S. (2003). Rome and the Barbarians, 100 B.C.–A.D. 400 (in Hungarian). The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-7306-1.
  • Crabtree, Pamela (2013). Medieval Archaeology. Routledge. ISBN 9781135582982.
  • Fodor, István (2009). Magyarország története 1.: Őstörténet és honfoglalás [A History of Hungary, Volume 1: Pre-History and Conquest] (in Hungarian). Kossuth Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-09-5679-6.
  • Heather, Peter (2005). The fall of the Roman Empire. A new history. Hardback London, Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-98914-2.
  • Hajnóczi, Julius Gyula; Redő, Ferenc (1998). Pannonia Hungarica Antiqua. Archaeolingua. ISBN 9789638046116.
  • Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199996339.
  • Kardaras, Georgios (2018). Byzantium and the Avars, 6th-9th c. A. D.: Political, diplomatic and cultural relations. Brill. ISBN 9789004382268.
  • Kontler, László (1999). Millennium in Central Europe: A History of Hungary. Atlantisz Publishing House. ISBN 963-9165-37-9.
  • Lengyel, Alfonz; Radan, George T. (1980). The Archaeology of Roman Pannonia. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 9789630518864.
  • Mócsy, András (1974). Pannonia and Upper Moesia: A History of the Middle Danube Provinces of the Roman Empire. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0-7100-7714-9.
  • Nemerkényi, Előd (2004). Latin Classics in Medieval Hungary: Eleventh Century. Central European University Press. ISBN 9637326049.
  • Pohl, Walter (2018). The Avars: A Steppe Empire in Central Europe, 567-822. Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801442100.
  • Spinei, Victor (2003). The Great Migrations in the East and South East of Europe from the Ninth to the Thirteenth Century. ISBN 973-85894-5-2.
  • Stephenson, Paul (2000). Byzantium's Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-02756-4.
  • Syvänne, Ilka (2015). Military History of Late Rome, 284–361. Pen & Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-84884-855-9.
  • Szőke, Béla Miklós (2014). The Carolingian Age in the Carpathian Basin. Hungarian National Museum. ISBN 978-615-5209-17-8.
  • Toch, Michael (2012). The Economic History of European Jews: Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages. Brill. ISBN 9789004235397.
  • Wilkes, John (1992). The Illyrians. ISBN 978-0-631-19807-9.
  • Wolfram, Herwig (1997). The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520085114.
  • Wolfram, Herwig (1990). History of the Goths. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520069831.
Retrieved from ""