Vicarious traumatization
![]() | This article's text uses more words than are necessary.(January 2018) |
Vicarious trauma (VT)was a term invented by McCann and Pearlman that is used to describe how working with traumatized clients and the effect is has on trauma therapists. Previously, the phenomenon was referred to as secondary traumatic stress coined by Dr. Charles Figley. The theory behind vicarious trauma is that the therapist has a profound world change and is permanently altered by the interaction of empathetic bonding with a client. This change is thought to have three conditional requirements: empathic engagement and exposure to graphic and traumatizing material, the therapist being exposed to human cruelty, and reenactment of trauma within the therapy process. This change can produce changes in a therapist’s sense of spirituality, worldview, and self-identity.
Vicarious trauma is still a subject of debate by theorists, with some saying it is based on the concept of countertransference, burnout, and compassion fatigue. McCann and Pearlman argue, however, that there is probably a relationship between these constructs, but vicarious trauma is unique and distinct.
As time has progressed, the term vicarious trauma has expanded to more than just indirect trauma experienced by trauma therapists and has come to include many more populations, although the phenomenon is still evolving.
Signs and symptoms[]
The symptoms of vicarious trauma align with the symptoms of primary, actual trauma. When helping professionals attempt to connect with their clients/victims emotionally, the symptoms of vicarious trauma can create emotional disturbance such as feelings of sadness, grief, irritability and mood swings.[1] The signs and symptoms of vicarious trauma parallel those of direct trauma, although they tend to be less intense. Workers who have personal trauma histories may be more vulnerable to VT, although the research findings on this point are mixed.[2] Common signs and symptoms include, but are not limited to, social withdrawal; mood swings; aggression; greater sensitivity to violence; somatic symptoms; sleep difficulties; intrusive imagery; cynicism; sexual difficulties; difficulty managing boundaries with clients; and core beliefs and resulting difficulty in relationships reflecting problems with security, trust, esteem, intimacy, and control.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9]
Contributing factors[]
Vicarious trauma, conceptually based in constructivist self-development theory,[10][11][12] arises from an interaction between individuals and their situations. This means that the individual helper's personal history (including prior traumatic experiences), coping strategies, and support network, among other things, all interact with his or her situation (including work setting, the nature of the work s/he does, the specific clientele served, etc.), to give rise to individual expressions of vicarious trauma. This in turn implies the individual nature of responses or adaptations to VT as well as individual ways of coping with and transforming it. Some have postulated that this traumatization occurs when one's view of the world or a feeling of safety is shattered by hearing about the experiences of their clients. This exposure to trauma, however indirectly, can cause an interruption to the daily functioning of the clinician reducing their effectiveness.[13]
Anything that interferes with the helper's ability to fulfill his/her responsibility to assist traumatized clients can contribute to vicarious trauma. Many human service workers report that administrative and bureaucratic factors that impediment to their effectiveness influence work satisfaction.[14] Negative aspects of the organization as a whole, such as reorganization, downsizing in the name of change management and a lack of resources in the name of lean management, contribute to burned-out workers.[15][16][17]
Vicarious trauma has also been attributed to the stigmatization of mental health care among service providers. Stigma leads to an inability to engage in self care and eventually the service provider may reach burnout, and become more likely to experience VT.[18] The research has also begun to show that vicarious trauma is more prominent in those with a prior history of trauma and adversity.[18] Research indicates that a mental health provider's defense style might pose as a risk factor for vicarious traumatization. Mental health providers with self-sacrificing defense styles have been found to experience increased vicarious traumatization.[19]
Research has demonstrated that females are more likely to develop secondary traumatic stress than males and counselors not in private practice are more likely to develop secondary traumatic stress. Those with stronger counselor professional identity (CPI) experience less secondary traumatic stress as well.[20]
Specifically, in EMS personnel, previous veteran status increased likelihood of experiencing vicarious trauma. [21]
Related concepts[]
While the term "vicarious trauma" has been used interchangeably with "compassion fatigue", "secondary traumatic stress disorder," "burnout," "countertransference," and "work-related stress," there are important differences. These include the following:
- Unlike compassion fatigue, VT is a theory-based construct. This means that observable symptoms can serve as the starting for a process of discovering contributing factors and related signs, symptoms, and adaptations. VT also specifies psychological domains that can be affected, rather than specific symptoms that may arise. This specificity may more accurately guide preventive measures and interventions, and allow for the accurate development of interventions for multiple domains (such as changes in the balance between psychotherapy and other work-related tasks and changes in self-care practices).
- Countertransference is the psychotherapist's response to a particular client. VT refers to responses across clients, across time.
- Unlike burnout, countertransference, and work-related stress, VT is specific to trauma workers. This means that the helper will experience trauma-specific difficulties, such as intrusive imagery, that are not part of burnout or countertransference.[11] The burnout and vicarious traumatization constructs overlap, specifically regarding emotional exhaustion.[22] A worker may experience both VT and burnout, and each has its own remedies. VT and countertransference may also co-occur, intensifying each other.[11]
- Unlike vicarious trauma, countertransference can be a very useful tool for psychotherapists, providing them with important information about their clients.
- Work-related stress is a generic term without a theoretical basis, specific signs and symptoms or contributing factors, or remedies. Burnout and vicarious trauma can co-exist. Countertransference responses may potentiate vicarious trauma.[11]
- Vicarious post-traumatic growth, unlike VTF, is not a theory-based construct but rather is based on self-reported signs.[23]
- Body-centred countertransference
Mechanism[]
The posited mechanism for vicarious traumatization is empathy.[11][24][25] Different forms of empathy may result in different effects on helpers. Batson and colleagues have conducted research that might inform trauma helpers about ways to manage empathic connection constructively.[26][27] If helpers identify with their trauma survivor clients and immerse themselves in thinking about what it would be like if these events happened to them, they are likely to experience personal distress, feeling upset, worried, distressed. On the other hand, if helpers instead imagine what the client experienced, they may be more likely to feel compassion and moved to help.
Measurement[]
Over the years, people have measured VT in a wide variety of ways. Vicarious trauma is a multifaceted construct requiring a multifaceted assessment. More specifically, the aspects of VT that would need to be measured for a complete assessment include self capacities, ego resources, frame of reference (identity, world view, and spirituality), psychological needs, and trauma symptoms.[10][28][12] Measuring of some of these elements of VT exist, including the following:
- Psychological needs, using the Trauma and Attachment Belief Scale[8]
- Self capacities, using the Inner Experience Questionnaire[11] and/or the Inventory of Altered Self-Capacities[29]
- Trauma symptoms, using the PTSD Checklist,[30] Impact of Events Scale,[31] Impact of Events Scale-Revised,[32] children's revised Impact of Events Scale (Arabic Version),[33] Trauma Symptom Inventory,[34] Detailed Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress,[35] and/or the World Assumptions Scale[36]
- Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale is a 17 item, 5-point Likert scale that distinguishes between PTSD measures by framing the questions as stressors from exposure to clients.[37]
- The Professional Quality of Life (ProQol) version 5. This assessment has 30 questions on a 5-point Likert scale and measures compassion fatigue and secondary trauma.[38]
Addressing[]
Vicarious traumatization is not the responsibility of clients or systems, although institutions that provide trauma-related services bear a responsibility to create policies and work settings that facilitate staff (and therefore client) well-being.[39][40] Each trauma worker is responsible for self-care,[41] working reflectively,[42] and engaging in regular, frequent, trauma-informed professional confidential consultation.[11]
There are many ways of addressing vicarious traumatization. All involve awareness, balance, and connection.[41] One set of approaches can be grouped together as coping strategies. These include, for example, self-care, rest, escape, and play. A second set of approaches can be grouped as transforming strategies. Transforming strategies aim to help workers create community and find meaning through the work. Within each category, strategies may be applied in one's personal life[12][41] and professional life.[42] Organizations that provide trauma services can also play a role in mitigating vicarious trauma.[43][44]
Research shows that many simple things increase happiness and this aids to lessen the impact of vicarious traumatization. People who are more socially connected tend to be happier.[45] People who consciously practice gratitude are also shown happier.[46] Creative endeavors that are completely detached with work also increase happiness.[47] Self-care practices like yoga, qigong, and sitting meditation are found to be helpful for those who practice.[48][49][50] HBR in a case study regarding to traumatization stated that it is essential to create an organizational culture in which it is cool to be a social worker or a counselor, where these professionals are empowered to influence the workplace issues, the strategy of human services in both corporate and care services.[51] Additionally, research indicates clinicians who are exposed to vicarious trauma are in need of targeted interventions that will boost their resilience. Findings have show interventions such as respite, increasing self efficacy, and having appropriate professional support buffer against the effects of vicarious trauma.[52]
Individuals Found to Experience Vicarious Trauma[]
Children[]
Children have been found to experience vicarious trauma from the traumas experienced by their caregivers and peers. In children the following factors have been found to predict vicarious trauma symptoms:
- Socioeconomic status
- Gender (girls more than boys)
- Race
- Witnessing the trauma directly
- Caregiver warmth and hostility
Foster Parents[]
Foster parents have been found to experience vicarious trauma related to the trauma of those they care for. Several studies have found that foster parents experience vicarious trauma, burnout, and compassion fatigue and report that emotional disengagement (a common symptom of VT) is a coping strategy. [53][54]
Counselors and Other Mental Health Providers[]
Counselors and other mental health professional have been found to experience vicarious trauma when working with veterans and others that have experienced trauma. Some of the factors that predict vicarious trauma severity include:
- Professional trauma
- Level of peer supervision
- Social support availability
- Emotional coping strategies
- Long hours and high caseloads
- Population served by the clinician[55]
- Defense mechanisms of the therapist[56]
American Muslims[]
After the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center in the United States, many Muslims were relegated with terrorists and attacks of violence were perpetrated against them. This caused many individuals in this community to experience vicarious trauma and added to a feeling of worry and being unsafe. Those feeling a stronger sense of religious identity were more likely to experience vicarious trauma.[57]
See also[]
- Allostatic load
- Emotional labor
- Historical trauma
- Secondary traumatic stress
- W. H. R. Rivers
References[]
- ^ Catanese, Shiloh A. (September 2010). "Traumatized by association: The risk of working sex crimes". Federal Probation. 74 (2). ISSN 1555-0303.
- ^ For a review of this literature, see Bride, Brian E. (1 January 2004). "The Impact of Providing Psychosocial Services to Traumatized Populations". Stress, Trauma, and Crisis. 7 (1): 29–46. doi:10.1080/15434610490281101. ISSN 1543-4613. S2CID 71313058.
- ^ Arvay, M.; Uhlemann, M.R. (1996). "Counsellor stress in the field of trauma: A preliminary study". Canadian Journal of Counselling. 30 (3): 193–210.
- ^ Bober, Ted; Regehr, Cheryl; Zhou, Yanqiu Rachel (January 2006). "Development of the Coping Strategies Inventory for Trauma Counselors". Journal of Loss and Trauma. 11 (1): 71–83. doi:10.1080/15325020500358225. ISSN 1532-5024. S2CID 144405929.
- ^ Brady, Joan Laidig; Guy, James D.; Poelstra, Paul L.; Brokaw, Beth Fletcher (1999). "Vicarious traumatization, spirituality, and the treatment of sexual abuse survivors: A national survey of women psychotherapists". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 30 (4): 386–393. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.30.4.386. ISSN 1939-1323.
- ^ Cunningham, Maddy (1 August 1999). "The Impact of Sexual Abuse Treatment on the Social Work Clinician". Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal. 16 (4): 277–290. doi:10.1023/A:1022334911833. ISSN 0738-0151. S2CID 140975279.
- ^ Ghahramanlou, M.; Brodbeck, C. (2000). "Predictors of secondary trauma in sexual assault trauma counselors". International Journal of Emergency Mental Health. 2 (4): 229–240. ISSN 1522-4821. PMID 11217154.
- ^ a b Pearlman, Laurie A (2003). Trauma and Attachment Belief Scale Manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services. OCLC 828744792.[pages needed]
- ^ Schauben, Laura J.; Frazier, Patricia A. (1995). "Vicarious Trauma: The Effects on Female Counselors of Working with Sexual Violence Survivors". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 19 (1): 49–64. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1995.tb00278.x. ISSN 0361-6843. S2CID 145635689.
- ^ a b McCann, I. Lisa (1990). Psychological trauma and the adult survivor: theory, therapy, and transformation. New York: Brunner/Mazel. ISBN 978-0-87630-594-2.[pages needed]
- ^ a b c d e f g Pearlman, Laurie A.; Saakvitne, Karen W. (1995). Trauma and the Therapist: Countertransference and Vicarious Traumatization in Psychotherapy with Incest Survivors. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-70183-8.[pages needed]
- ^ a b c Saakvitne, Karen W. (2000). Risking Connection: A Training Curriculum for Working with Survivors of Childhood Abuse. Sidran Press. ISBN 978-1-886968-08-0.[pages needed]
- ^ Foreman, Tamarine (2018-04-01). "Wellness, Exposure to Trauma, and Vicarious Traumatization: A Pilot Study". Journal of Mental Health Counseling. 40 (2): 142–155. doi:10.17744/mehc.40.2.04. ISSN 1040-2861.
- ^ Pryce, Josephine G; Shackelford, Kimberly K.; Pryce, David H. (2007). Secondary Traumatic Stress and the Child Welfare Professional. Chicago: Lyceum Books, Inc. ISBN 978-0-19-061591-8.[pages needed]
- ^ Maslach, Christina; Schaufeli, Wilmar B.; Leiter, Michael P. (February 2001). "Job Burnout". Annual Review of Psychology. 52 (1): 397–422. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.397. ISSN 0066-4308. PMID 11148311.
- ^ Maslach, Christina (1 October 2003). "Job Burnout: New Directions in Research and Intervention". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 12 (5): 189–192. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.01258. ISSN 0963-7214. S2CID 145581839.
- ^ Rupert, Patricia; Morgan, David (1 October 2005). "Work Setting and Burnout Among Professional Psychologists". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 36 (5): 544–550. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.36.5.544.
- ^ a b Newcomb, Michelle; Burton, Judith; Edwards, Niki (2017-08-18). "Service user or service provider? How social work and human services students integrate dual identities". Social Work Education. 36 (6): 678–689. doi:10.1080/02615479.2017.1327574. ISSN 0261-5479. S2CID 149202002.
- ^ Adams, Shelah A.; Riggs, Shelley A. (2008). "An exploratory study of vicarious trauma among therapist trainees". Training and Education in Professional Psychology. 2 (1): 26–34. doi:10.1037/1931-3918.2.1.26. ISSN 1931-3926.
- ^ "Examining the Relationship Between Compassion, Secondary Traumatic Stress, and Counselor Professional Identity Among Counselor Practitioners: A Correlational Study". Retrieved 2021-10-17 – via ProQuest.
- ^ Renkiewicz, Ginny K.; Hubble, Michael W. (2021-06-15). "Secondary Traumatic Stress in Emergency Services Systems (STRESS) Project: Quantifying and Predicting Compassion Fatigue in Emergency Medical Services Personnel". Prehospital Emergency Care: 1–16. doi:10.1080/10903127.2021.1943578. ISSN 1090-3127. PMID 34128453. S2CID 235439364.
- ^ Gamble, SJ; Pearlman, LA; Lucca, AM; Allen, GJ (1994). Vicarious traumatization and burnout among Connecticut psychologists: Empirical findings. Annual meeting of the Connecticut Psychological Association. Waterbury, CT.
- ^ Arnold, Debora; Calhoun, Lawrence G.; Tedeschi, Richard; Cann, Arnie (1 April 2005). "Vicarious Posttraumatic Growth in Psychotherapy". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 45 (2): 239–263. doi:10.1177/0022167805274729. ISSN 0022-1678. S2CID 145618063.
- ^ Rothschild, Babette; Rand, Marjorie L. (2006). Help for the Helper: The Psychophysiology of Compassion Fatigue and Vicarious Trauma. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-70422-8.[pages needed]
- ^ Wilson, John P.; Thomas, Rhiannon Brywnn (23 November 2004). Empathy in the Treatment of Trauma and PTSD. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-93746-1.[pages needed]
- ^ Batson, C. Daniel; Fultz, Jim; Schoenrade, Patricia A. (1 March 1987). "Distress and Empathy: Two Qualitatively Distinct Vicarious Emotions with Different Motivational Consequences". Journal of Personality. 55 (1): 19–39. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1987.tb00426.x. ISSN 1467-6494. PMID 3572705.
- ^ Lamm, Claus; Batson, C. Daniel; Decety, Jean (1 January 2007). "The Neural Substrate of Human Empathy: Effects of Perspective-taking and Cognitive Appraisal" (PDF). Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 19 (1): 42–58. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.511.3950. doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.1.42. ISSN 0898-929X. PMID 17214562. S2CID 2828843.
- ^ Pearlman, Laurie Anne (2001). "The treatment of persons with complex PTSD and other trauma-related disruptions of the self". In Wilson, J.P.; Friedman; Lindy (eds.). Treating psychological trauma & PTSD. New York: Guilford Press. pp. 205–236.
- ^ Briere, John; Runtz, Marsha (1 September 2002). "The Inventory of Altered Self-Capacities (IASC): A Standardized Measure of Identity, Affect Regulation, and Relationship Disturbance" (PDF). Assessment. 9 (3): 230–239. doi:10.1177/1073191102009003002. ISSN 1073-1911. PMID 12216780. S2CID 14719358.
- ^ Weathers, Frank W; Litz, Brett T; Herman, Debra S; Huska, Jennifer A; Keane, Terence M (1993). The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. Annual convention of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. 462. San Antonio, Texas.
- ^ Horowitz, M.; Wilner, N.; Alvarez, W. (May 1979). "Impact of Event Scale: a measure of subjective stress" (PDF). Psychosomatic Medicine. 41 (3): 209–218. doi:10.1097/00006842-197905000-00004. ISSN 0033-3174. PMID 472086. S2CID 4506565.
- ^ "Impact of Event Scale – Revised (IES-R)". PTSD: National Center for PTSD. US Department of Veterans' Affairs.
- ^ Veronese, Guido; Pepe, Alessandro (1 November 2013). "Psychometric Properties of IES-R, Short Arabic Version in Contexts of Military Violence". Research on Social Work Practice. 23 (6): 710–718. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.951.5841. doi:10.1177/1049731513486360. ISSN 1049-7315. S2CID 144835107.
- ^ Briere 1996.[full citation needed]
- ^ Briere, John (2001). Detailed Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress: DAPS: Professional Manual. Psychological Assessment Resources Lutz, FL.
- ^ Janoff-Bulman, Ronnie (1 June 1989). "Assumptive Worlds and the Stress of Traumatic Events: Applications of the Schema Construct". Social Cognition. 7 (2): 113–136. doi:10.1521/soco.1989.7.2.113. ISSN 0278-016X.
- ^ Bride, Brian E.; Robinson, Margaret M.; Yegidis, Bonnie; Figley, Charles R. (2012-06-11). "Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale". doi:10.1037/t06768-000. Cite journal requires
|journal=
(help) - ^ Stamm, B.H. (2010). "Professional Quality of Life Scale 5". The National Child Traumatic Stress Network.
- ^ Shah, Siddharth Ashvin (September 2008). "Addressing Stress in National Staff" (PDF). Monday Developments: The Latest Issues and Trends in International Development and Humanitarian Assistance. 26 (9): 21–22.
- ^ Shah, Siddharth Ashvin (December 2010). "Three Principles of Effective Staff Care: Differentiation, Diversity and Diffusion" (PDF). Monday Developments: The Latest Issues and Trends in International Development and Humanitarian Assistance. 28 (12): 8–10, 30.
- ^ a b c Saakvitne, Karen W.; Pearlman, Laurie A. (1996). Transforming the Pain: A Workbook on Vicarious Traumatization. W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-70233-0.[pages needed]
- ^ a b Pearlman, Laurie A.; Caringi, J. (2009). "Living and working self-reflectively to address vicarious trauma". In Courtois, Christine; Ford (eds.). Treating complex traumatic stress disorders: an evidence-based guide. New York: Guilford Press. pp. 202–224. ISBN 978-1-60623-039-8.
- ^ Rosenbloom, D.J.; Pratt, A.C.; Pearlman, Laurie A. (1995). "Helpers' responses to trauma work: Understanding and intervening in an organization". In Stamm, B. (ed.). Secondary traumatic stress: self-care issues for clinicians, researchers, and educators. Sidran Press. pp. 66–79. ISBN 978-0-9629164-9-6.
- ^ Stamm, B., ed. (1999). Secondary Traumatic Stress: Self-care Issues for Clinicians, Researchers, and Educators. Sidran Press. ISBN 978-1-886968-07-3.[pages needed]
- ^ Kawachi, Ichiro; Berkman, Lisa F. (1 September 2001). "Social ties and mental health". Journal of Urban Health. 78 (3): 458–467. doi:10.1093/jurban/78.3.458. ISSN 1099-3460. PMC 3455910. PMID 11564849.
- ^ Seligman, Martin E. P.; Steen, Tracy A.; Park, Nansook; Peterson, Christopher (2005). "Positive Psychology Progress: Empirical Validation of Interventions" (PDF). American Psychologist. 60 (5): 410–421. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.465.7003. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410. ISSN 1935-990X. PMID 16045394.
- ^ Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly (1999). "If we are so rich, why aren't we happy?". American Psychologist. 54 (10): 821–827. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.821. ISSN 1935-990X.
- ^ Christopher, John Chambers; Chrisman, Jennifer A.; Trotter-Mathison, Michelle J.; Schure, Marc B.; Dahlen, Penny; Christopher, Suzanne B. (1 July 2011). "Perceptions of the Long-Term Influence of Mindfulness Training on Counselors and Psychotherapists: A Qualitative Inquiry". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 51 (3): 318–349. doi:10.1177/0022167810381471. ISSN 0022-1678. S2CID 145411787.
- ^ Christopher, John Chambers; Christopher, Suzanne E.; Dunnagan, Tim; Schure, Marc (1 October 2006). "Teaching Self-Care Through Mindfulness Practices: The Application of Yoga, Meditation, and Qigong to Counselor Training". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 46 (4): 494–509. doi:10.1177/0022167806290215. ISSN 0022-1678. S2CID 143592253.
- ^ Newsome, Sandy; Christopher, John; Dahlen, Penny; Christopher, Suzanne (1 September 2006). "Teaching Counselors Self-Care Through Mindfulness Practices". Teachers College Record. 108 (9): 1881–1900. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00766.x.
- ^ Quelch, John A.; Knoop, Carin-Isabel (6 November 2014). "Mental Health and the American Workplace". Cite journal requires
|journal=
(help) - ^ Finklestein, M.; Stein, E.; Greene, T.; Bronstein, I.; Solomon, Z. (2015-05-01). "Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Vicarious Trauma in Mental Health Professionals". Health & Social Work. 40 (2): e25–e31. doi:10.1093/hsw/hlv026. ISSN 0360-7283.
- ^ K.B. McLain. The impact of burnout, compassion fatigue, and compassion satisfaction on foster parenting. Unpublished PhD dissertation. State University of New York (2008)
- ^ Blanchette, J. A. (2011). Compassion Fatigue, Forgiveness, and Empathy in Foster Parents (Order No. 3442295). Available from ProQuest 851709362
- ^ Helpingstine, Claire; Kenny, Maureen C.; Malik, Fayeza (2021-06-17). "Vicarious Traumatization and Burnout among Service Providers for Victims of Commercial Sexual Exploitation". Journal of Child Sexual Abuse. 30 (6): 722–745. doi:10.1080/10538712.2021.1938771. ISSN 1053-8712. PMID 34137346. S2CID 235460538.
- ^ Aafjes-Van Doorn, Katie; Békés, Vera; Luo, Xiaochen; Prout, Tracy A.; Hoffman, Leon (2021-07-30). "What Do Therapist Defense Mechanisms Have to Do With Their Experience of Professional Self-Doubt and Vicarious Trauma During the COVID-19 Pandemic?". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 647503. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647503. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 8363079. PMID 34393887.
- ^ Ashraf, Anjabeen; Nassar, Sylvia (2018). "American Muslims and vicarious trauma: An explanatory concurrent mixed-methods study". American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 88 (5): 516–528. doi:10.1037/ort0000354. ISSN 1939-0025. PMID 30179026. S2CID 52151431.
Further reading[]
- Hernández, Pilar; Gangsei, David; Engstrom, David (1 June 2007). "Vicarious Resilience: A New Concept in Work With Those Who Survive Trauma". Family Process. 46 (2): 229–241. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2007.00206.x. ISSN 1545-5300. PMID 17593887.
- Kearney, Michael K.; Weininger, Radhule B.; Vachon, Mary L. S.; Harrison, Richard L.; Mount, Balfour M. (18 March 2009). "Self-care of Physicians Caring for Patients at the End of Life: "Being Connected . . . A Key to My Survival"" (PDF). JAMA. 301 (11): 1155–64, E1. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.352. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 19293416.
- Meadors, Patrick; Lamson, Angela (1 January 2008). "Compassion Fatigue and Secondary Traumatization: Provider Self Care on Intensive Care Units for Children". Journal of Pediatric Health Care. 22 (1): 24–34. doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2007.01.006. ISSN 0891-5245. PMID 18174086.
- Norcross, John C.; Guy, James D. (25 June 2007). Leaving It at the Office: A Guide to Psychotherapist Self-Care. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-59385-576-5.
- Shah, Siddharth Ashvin (15 October 2009). "'To do no harm,' Spiritual Care and Ethnomedical Competence: Four cases of Psychosocial Trauma Recovery for the 2004 Tsunami and 2005 Earthquake in South Asia.". In Brenner, Grant; Bush; Moses (eds.). Creating Spiritual and Psychological Resilience: Integrating Care in Disaster Relief Work. Taylor & Francis. pp. 157–178. ISBN 978-0-203-86953-6.
- Wicks, Robert J. (13 September 2007). The Resilient Clinician. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-972449-9.
External links[]
- Counseling
- Types of mental disorders