1030s

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Millennium: 2nd millennium
Centuries:
  • 10th century
  • 11th century
  • 12th century
Decades:
  • 1010s
  • 1020s
  • 1030s
  • 1040s
  • 1050s
Years:
  • 1030
  • 1031
  • 1032
  • 1033
  • 1034
  • 1035
  • 1036
  • 1037
  • 1038
  • 1039
Categories:
  • Births
  • Deaths
  • By country
  • By topic
  • Establishments
  • Disestablishments

The 1030s was a decade of the Julian Calendar which began on January 1, 1030, and ended on December 31, 1039.

Events

1030

This section is transcluded from 1030. ( | )

By place[]

Byzantine Empire[]
  • Emperor Romanos III Argyros decides to retaliate upon the incursions of the Muslims on the eastern frontier. He leads a Byzantine expeditionary force (20,000 men) to secure Antioch. The Mirdasid emir Shibl al-Dawla Nasr of Aleppo sues for peace, but Romanos refuses to negotiate and leads his army against Aleppo, against the advice of his generals. The Byzantine army encamps near Azaz, where they are encircled by the Mirdasids' Bedouin troops, who cut off the Byzantines from food and water.
  • 10 August – Romanos orders a retreat to Antioch. As the army is exhausted from the heat and the lack of supplies, the retreat soon turns into a flight in panic. Romanos returns to Constantinople in humiliation but his generals on the eastern frontier manage to salvage the situation: a Fatimid attack on Maraqiya is repulsed, and Azaz itself is captured in December after a brief siege. In April/May 1031, Emir Nasr of Aleppo agreed to vassal and tributary status with Byzantium.[1]
Europe[]
  • June – Emperor Conrad II (the Elder) leads an invasion into Hungary. He plunders the lands west of the River Rába, but suffers from consequences of the scorched earth tactics used by the Hungarians. Conrad, threatened by starvation, is forced to retreat back to Germany. King Stephen I pursues his forces, which are defeated and captured by the Hungarians at Vienna.
  • July 29 – Battle of Stiklestad: King Olaf II Haraldsson (St. Olaf) attempts to reconquer Norway with help from King Anund Jakob of Sweden. He is defeated by a superior Norwegian peasant and Danish army (14,000 men). Olaf is killed in the battle, he is later canonized and becomes the patron saint of Norway and Rex perpetuum Norvegiae ('the eternal king of Norway').
  • The first mention is made of Tartu, Estonia, as Grand Prince Yaroslav I (the Wise) of Novgorod and Kiev defeats the Estonians, and founds a fort named Yuryev (modern-day Tartu).[2] The Rus' will hold the fortress for the next 30 or 31 years.
  • The first mention is made of Thalwil, Switzerland, which is derived from Tellewilare, and indicates the early medieval origins of Thalwil as an Alemannic farmstead.
  • Henry I revolts against his father King Robert II (the Pious) in a civil war over power and property. Robert's army is defeated, and he retreats to Beaugency.
Asia[]
  • April 30 – Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni dies after a 28-year reign. He is succeeded by his son Mas'ud I who seizes the throne of the Ghaznavid Empire, which includes much of Afghanistan, Iran and India.
  • Ouyang Xiu, a Chinese historian and scholar, obtains his jinshi degree at the age of 23, by passing the imperial examinations in the country, leading him into a distinguished path as a scholar-official.

1031

This section is transcluded from 1031. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • July 20 – King Robert II (the Pious) dies at Melun, after a 35-year reign. He is succeeded by his 23-year-old son, Henry I, who becomes the sole ruler of France. Henry's mother, Queen dowager Constance of Arles, prefers her third son, Robert, as heir to the throne and, with the help of Count Odo II, begins a war against Henry.[3]
  • The Caliphate of Córdoba collapses after years of infighting; the caliphate fractures into a number of independent Muslim taifa (kingdoms). The last Umayyad ruler, Caliph Hisham III, tries to consolidate the caliphate, but his raising of taxes (to pay for mosques) leads to heavy opposition and he is imprisoned by his rivals.[4]
  • King Mieszko II is forced to escape Poland after an attack of Grand Prince Yaroslav I (the Wise) of Kiev, who installs Mieszko's half-brother Bezprym onto the Polish throne.
  • France suffers from a famine (until 1033).[5]
Middle East[]
  • The Byzantine general George Maniakes captures Edessa from the Arab Muslims and stabilizes the eastern frontier.

1032

This section is transcluded from 1032. ( | )

By place[]

Byzantine Empire[]
  • Spring – Emperor Romanos III (Argyros) sends a Byzantine expeditionary army under General Michael Protospatharios, which includes Western auxiliaries and elite troops of Asia Minor, to reinforce the Byzantine position in Calabria (Southern Italy).
Europe[]
  • September 6 – King Rudolph III dies without any heirs. He bequeaths his entire dominions to Emperor Conrad II (the Elder), dispatching to him the Holy Lance and ring of St. Maurice, symbols of Burgundian investiture.
  • Odo II, count of Champagne, invades Burgundy and seizes most of the kingdom for himself.[6] With the assistance of Humbert I of Savoy, Queen-dowager Ermengarde (Rudolph III's widow) flees to the safety of Zürich.
  • Winter – Conrad II marches with his army into Champagne and devastes the land – forcing Odo II to sue for peace and swear to abandon Burgundy. The bishops prevent Conrad from seizing control of Burgundy.
  • The first mention is made of Kursk, Russia, in the hagiography of Theodosius, who becomes a monk at the Kiev Caves Monastery (approximate date).

By topic[]

Religion[]
  • October – Pope John XIX dies after an 8-year pontificate at Rome. He is succeeded by his nephew Benedict IX as the 145th pope of the Catholic Church, while (probably) still in his teens.

1033

This section is transcluded from 1033. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • February 2 – Emperor Conrad II (the Elder) holds an assembly at the Abbey of Payerne and is crowned King of Burgundy. He claims dominion over the Kingdom of Burgundy which is incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire.[7]
  • Treaty of Merseburg: Conrad II attends a Hoftag at Merseburg and signs an agreement with King Mieszko II. He divides Poland in three parts with Mieszko designated as supreme ruler, in exchange for Conrad's support.

By topic[]

Religion[]
  • Panic spreads throughout Europe that the end of the universe may be near,[8][9][10] on the supposed 1,000th anniversary of the crucifixion of Christ, due to some unusually harsh spring weather. The Book of Revelation (Chapter 20) predicts the end of the earth after a 1,000 year period after the second return of Jesus Christ.[11][12][13]

1034

This section is transcluded from 1034. ( | )

By place[]

Byzantine Empire[]
  • April 11 – Emperor Romanos III (Argyros) is drowned in his bath, at the urging of his wife Zoë, who marries her chamberlain, and elevates him to the throne of the Byzantine Empire, as Michael IV. Romanos is buried in the Church of St. Mary Peribleptos in Constantinople.[14]
Europe[]
  • Spring – Emperor Conrad II (the Elder) leads a German military expedition via the Rhone River into Burgundy, while two Italian armies led by Archbishop Aribert and Boniface III (margrave of Tuscany) head over the Alps and join with Count Humbert I at Great St. Bernard Pass.
  • March – Conrad II converges his armies on Lake Lemano and defeats Count Odo II in battle at Geneva (modern Switzerland). For his assistance, Conrad grants Humbert I with the Burgundian county of Maurienne.
  • May – King Mieszko II dies after a 6-year reign (probably killed as a result of a conspiracy) and is succeeded by his 17-year-old son Casimir I (the Restorer). A violent revolt spreads throughout Poland.
  • King Sancho III (the Great) of Pamplona captures León, after defeating a string of rivals. His rule now extends from the borders of Galicia in the west to the County of Barcelona in the east.
  • Summer – Poland is broke up into regions (during the so-called Pagan Reaction). Queen Richeza, Casimir I and his sisters Ryksa and Gertruda are driven into exile in Germany.[15]
  • November 25 – King Malcolm II dies in battle at Glamis. He is succeeded by Duncan I, son of his eldest daughter, rather than Macbeth, who is possibly another grandson of his.[16]
  • In Al-Andalus, benefiting from the weakening of the Muslim central authority, the count of Portugal, Gonçalo Maia, conquers Montemor-o-Velho (approximate date).
  • Franche-Comté becomes subject to the Holy Roman Empire.
Africa[]
  • A Pisan and Genovese fleet attack Bona (modern Annaba) on the Maghribi coast (modern Tunisia). The city is occupied for one year.[17]

1035

This section is transcluded from 1035. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • July – The 8-year-old William I becomes duke of Normandy, after his father Robert I (the Magnificent) dies, on a pilgrimage at Nicaea (modern Turkey). Robert's death leads to a period of instability in Normandy, as William is too young to take his father's place. The Norman nobles in the region take the opportunity to settle old feuds, and to increase their private wealth.[18]
  • Emperor Conrad II (the Elder) grants the city of Koper (modern Slovenia) town rights, and some degree of self-government, within the Holy Roman Empire.
  • October 16 – Conrad II grants the right to hold the first Freimarkt festival in Bremen. The city increases her trade with Norway, and the northern Netherlands.
  • October 18 – King Sancho III of Pamplona dies and divides his dominions among his four sons, García Sánchez III, Gonzalo I, Ferdinand I and Ramiro I.
  • Pisa launches a naval assault against the Saracen pirates strongholds in the Lipari Islands.[19]
England[]
  • November 12 – King Cnut (the Great) dies at Shaftesbury, leaving the rule of England in dispute between his sons Harthacnut and Harold Harefoot. The earls of Northumbria and Mercia support Harold's claim, while Godwin (Earl of Wessex) supports Harthacnut. Harold is elected as regent (or joint ruler) of England. Cnut is buried in the Old Minster, in Winchester.
  • Winter – Harthacnut is unable to travel to his coronation in England, because his Danish kingdom is under threat of an invasion by King Magnus I of Norway, and King Anund Jacob of Sweden.

1036

This section is transcluded from 1036. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • Summer – In Naples, Duke Sergius IV abdicates and retires to a monastery; he is succeeded by his son John V.
  • A Zirid expeditionary force invades Sicily and takes Palermo from the Normans, but fails to fully reconquer the island.[20]
England[]
  • February 5 – Edward the Confessor's younger brother Alfred Aetheling is blinded and murdered, in an apparent attempt to seize the throne of England from Harold I.
Africa[]
China[]
  • The Tangut script is devised by Yeli Renrong, for Emperor Jing Zong of Western Xia.[21]
Japan[]
  • May 15 – Emperor Go-Ichijō dies at the age of 27 after a 20-year reign. He is succeeded by his brother Go-Suzaku as the 69th emperor of Japan.

By topic[]

Religion[]
  • Pope Benedict IX is briefly forced out of Rome, but returns with the help of Emperor Conrad II (the Elder).
  • The Flower Sermon first appears in Buddhist literature.

1037

This section is transcluded from 1037. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • Spring – A revolt in northern Italy is started by Archbishop Aribert of Milan. King Henry III (eldest son of Emperor Conrad II) travels south of the Alps to quell it.
  • February – At an Imperial Diet in Pavia (assembled by Conrad II), Aribert is accused of fomenting a revolt against the Holy Roman Empire, Conrad orders his arrest.
  • May – Conrad II, with Pavian assistance, lays siege to Milan at the Porta Romana side, but the city holds out. In Rome, Pope Benedict IX deposes Aribert as archbishop.
  • May 28 – Conrad II decrees the Constitutio de Feudis which protects the rights of the valvassores (knights and burghers of the cities) in Lombardia (modern Italy).
  • Summer – A Byzantine expeditionary force under George Maniakes lands at Sicily, and defeats the Zirids. Maniakes begins his campaign to reconquer the island.
  • September 4 – Battle of Tamarón: Ferdinand I defeats and kills his brother-in-law Bermudo III. Ferdinand becomes the king of Castile and León (modern Spain).[22]
  • November 15 – Battle of Bar-le-Duc: Odo II, Count of Blois and Champagne, while invading the Duchy of Lorraine dies in battle with forces loyal to Gothelo I.
England[]
  • King Harold I seizes the throne of England from his half-brother Harthacnut. His mother, Emma of Normandy flees to Bruges in Flanders (modern Belgium).[23]
Asia[]
  • The Chinese rime dictionary of the Jiyun is published during the Song Dynasty.

1038

This section is transcluded from 1038. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • Emperor Conrad II (the Elder) travels to Southern Italy and holds court in Troia. He orders Pandulf IV of Capua to restore the territories of Monte Cassino. Pandulf holes himself up in the fortress of Sant'Agata de' Goti, and dispatches tribute (300 lb of gold) and his son as hostage to Troia as a token of peace. Conrad accepts his offer, but the son escapes. Conrad goes on the offensive and seizes Capua, and gives it to Guaimar IV of Salerno.
  • Duke John II drives his brother Manso II and his mother Maria out of Amalfi. He has Manso blinded and exiled to the island of Sirenuse. John reconciles with Maria, and allows her to remain as co-ruler of Amalfi.
  • The Banu Tujib clan is deposed by Al-Mustain I, who starts the Huddid Dynasty, which rules over the Taifa of Zaragoza for almost a century (approximate date).[24]
  • The name of Versailles, at this time a small village, appears for the first time in a medieval charter in France.
  • Duke Bretislav I of Bohemia invades Poland. He captures and destroys the cities of Gniezno and Poznań.
  • August 15 – On the death of his uncle, Stephen I, Peter Orseolo becomes the second ruler of Hungary.
  • August – A battle occurs near the town of Alfuente, Andalucia, between the Taifa of Granada and the Taifa of Almeria, as described by the Jewish poet Samuel ibn Naghrela.
Asia[]
  • The Western Xia declare their independence from the Liao Dynasty in China.

1039

This section is transcluded from 1039. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • June 4 – Emperor Conrad II (the Elder) dies of gout in Utrecht after a 12-year reign. He is succeeded by his 21-year-old son, Henry III (the Black), who becomes also king of Italy and Burgundy.
  • Duke Casimir I (the Restorer) returns to Poland, and makes great efforts to rebuild the war-ruined country. He establishes his residence at Kraków (which becomes Poland's capital until 1596).[25]

By topic[]

Religion[]
  • The Abbey of Bec is founded, located in Le Bec-Hellouin, Normandy (modern France).[26]

Significant people[]

  • Godwin, Earl of Wessex


Births[]

Transcluding articles: 1030, 1031, 1032, 1033, 1034, 1035, 1036, 1037, 1038, and 1039

1030

  • July 21 – Kyansittha, king of the Pagan Empire (Burma)
  • July 26 – Stanislaus of Szczepanów, bishop of Kraków (d. 1079)
  • Adelaide of Eilenburg, German noblewoman (approximate date)
  • Anne of Kiev, French queen and regent (approximate date)
  • Baldwin VI (the Good), count of Flanders (approximate date)
  • Bruno of Cologne, founder of the Carthusian Order (d. 1101)
  • Gerard (the Great), duke of Lorraine (approximate date)
  • Gertrude of Saxony, countess of Holland (approximate date)
  • Manegold of Lautenbach, German priest (approximate date)
  • Romanos IV, emperor of the Byzantine Empire (d. 1072)
  • Vsevolod I Yaroslavich, Grand Prince of Kiev (d. 1093)
  • Walter of Pontoise, French abbot (approximate date)
  • William of Hirsau, German abbot (approximate date)

1031

  • March 26 – Malcolm III (Canmore), king of Scotland (d. 1093)
  • Hoël II (or Houel), duke of Brittany (approximate date)
  • Matilda of Flanders, queen consort of England (d. 1083)
  • Muhammad ibn Ammar, Moorish poet and writer (d. 1086)
  • Robert, Norman nobleman and Earl of Cornwall (d. 1095)
  • Roger I (the Great Count), Norman nobleman (d. 1101)
  • Shen Kuo, Chinese polymath scientist and engineer (d. 1095)
  • Spytihněv II, duke of Bohemia (House of Přemyslid) (d. 1061)

1032

  • February 16 – Ying Zong, Chinese emperor (d. 1067)
  • September 3 – Go-Sanjō, Japanese emperor (d. 1073)
  • September 14 – Dao Zong, Chinese emperor (d. 1101)
  • Abe no Munetō, Japanese nobleman and samurai (d. 1108)
  • Cheng Hao, Chinese neo-confucian philosopher (d. 1085)
  • Donald III (the Fair), king of Scotland (approximate date)
  • Ermengol III (or Armengol), count of Urgell (d. 1065)
  • Gao, Chinese empress consort and regent (d. 1093)
  • Gyrth Godwinson, English nobleman (approximated date)
  • Hugh de Grandmesnil, Norman warrior and sheriff (d. 1098)
  • Osbern FitzOsbern, bishop of Exeter (approximate date)
  • Touzi Yiqing, Chinese Zen Buddhist monk (d. 1083)
  • Vratislaus II (or Wratislaus), king of Bohemia (d. 1092)

1033

  • Anselm, English archbishop and philosopher (d. 1109)
  • Cheng Yi, Chinese neo-confucian philosopher (d. 1107)
  • Conan II, duke of Brittany (approximate date)
  • Fujiwara no Atsuie, Japanese nobleman (d. 1090)
  • Fujiwara no Tadaie, Japanese statesman (d. 1091)
  • Judith of Flanders, German duchess (approximate date)
  • Theobald of Provins, French hermit and saint (d. 1066)
  • Urraca of Zamora, Spanish noblewoman (d. 1101)

1034

1035

  • Dharma Pala, Indian ruler of the Pala Dynasty (d. 1060)
  • Henry of Burgundy, French nobleman (approximate date)
  • Hereward (the Wake), English nobleman (approximate date)
  • Hermann of Salm, German nobleman (approximate date)
  • Isaac Albalia, Andalusian Jewish astronomer (d. 1094)
  • Leofwine Godwinson, English nobleman (approximate date)
  • Marbodius of Rennes, French archdeacon (approximate date)
  • Nathan ben Jehiel, Italian Jewish lexicographer (d. 1106)
  • Robert I (the Frisian), count of Flanders (approximate date)
  • Urban II, pope of the Catholic Church (approximate date)

1036

  • Anselm of Lucca (the Younger), Italian bishop (d. 1086)
  • Fujiwara no Hiroko, Japanese empress (d. 1127)
  • Igor Yaroslavich, prince of Smolensk (d. 1060)
  • Wang Shen, Chinese painter and poet (d. 1093 )

1037

  • January 8 – Su Dongpo, Chinese calligrapher (d. 1101)
  • Beatrice I, German abbess of Quedlinburg (d. 1061)
  • Hawise, duchess of Brittany (approximate date)

1038

  • Ibn Butlan, Arab Nestorian Christian physician (d. 1075)
  • Isaac ibn Ghiyyat, Jewish rabbi and philosopher (d. 1089)
  • Rostislav of Tmutarakan, Kievan Rus' prince (d. 1066)
  • Sancho Garcés, Spanish nobleman (approximate date)

1039

  • Helibo, Chinese nobleman and chieftain (d. 1092)
  • Minamoto no Yoshiie, Japanese samurai (d. 1106)
  • Robert de Stafford, Norman nobleman (approximate date)
  • Sancho IV, king of Pamplona (approximate date)
  • Su Zhe, Chinese politician and historian (d. 1112)
  • Vseslav of Polotsk, Kievan prince (approximate date)

Deaths[]

Transcluding articles: 1030, 1031, 1032, 1033, 1034, 1035, 1036, 1037, 1038, and 1039

1030

1031

  • January 1 – William of Volpiano, Italian abbot (b. 962)
  • January 5 – Gunnor, duchess consort of Normandy
  • April 10 – Liudolf of Lotharingia, German nobleman
  • June 17 – Hyeonjong, king of Goryeo (Korea) (b. 992)
  • June 25 – Sheng Zong, emperor of the Liao Dynasty (b. 972)
  • June 28 – Taira no Tadatsune, Japanese governor (b. 975)
  • July 20 – Robert II (the Pious), king of France (b. 972)
  • August 20 – Burchard, French archbishop and count
  • September 2 – Emeric, Hungarian prince and co-heir
  • September 9 – Gang Gam-chan, Korean general (b. 948)
  • November 29 – Al-Qadir, Abbasid caliph of Baghdad (b. 947)
  • Aribo, German archbishop and primate (Primas Germaniae)
  • Fadl ibn Muhammad, Shaddadid emir of Ganja (Azerbaijan)
  • Qadi 'Abd al-Wahhab, Abbasid scholar and jurist (b. 973)
  • Snorri Goði, Icelandic Viking warrior and chieftain (b. 963)

1032

  • July 28 – Constance of Arles, French queen
  • July 29 – Matilda of Swabia, German duchess
  • September 6 – Rudolph III, king of Burgundy
  • October 4 – Sancho VI, duke of Gascony
  • Ahmad Maymandi, Ghaznavid vizier
  • Arslan Yabgu, Turkic chieftain and ruler
  • Bezprym (or Besfrim), duke of Poland
  • Constantine Diogenes, Byzantine general
  • Gille Coemgáin, king of Moray (Scotland)
  • John XIX, pope of the Catholic Church
  • Li, Chinese consort and concubine (b. 987)
  • Li Deming, Chinese rebel leader (b. 981)
  • Odo II, margrave of the Saxon Ostmark
  • Otto Orseolo (or Ottone), doge of Venice

1033

  • May 11 – Ebles I, French nobleman and archbishop
  • Abu Talib Yahya, Muslim imam (Zaidiyyah sect) (b. 951)
  • Ahmad Inaltigin, Ghaznavid general and rebel leader
  • Ibno Al-Thahabi, Moorish encyclopedist and physician
  • John VIII bar Abdoun, patriarch of Antioch (b. 944)
  • Liu, empress and regent of the Song Dynasty (b. 969)
  • Merewith (or Beorhtwig), English abbot and bishop
  • Otto Bolesławowic, Polish prince (House of Piast) (b. 1000)
  • Rhydderch ap Iestyn, king of Gwent and Deheubarth

1034

1035

1036

1037

1038

1039

References[]

  1. ^ Halm, Heinz (2003). Die Kalifen von Kairo: Die Fatimiden in Ägypten, 973–1074 [The Caliphs of Cairo: The Fatimids in Egypt, 973–1074] (in German). Munich: C. H. Beck. pp. 341–343. ISBN 3-406-48654-1.
  2. ^ Tvauri, Andres (2012). The Migration Period, Pre-Viking Age, and Viking Age in Estonia. pp. 33, 59, 60. Retrieved 27 December 2016.
  3. ^ Jonathan Riley-Smith (2006). The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 4, c. 1024–c. 1198, p. 124. ISBN 978-0-521-41411-1.
  4. ^ Chejne, Anwar G. (1974). Muslim Spain: Its History and Culture, pp. 43–49. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0816606889.
  5. ^ Moriceau, Jean-Marc (2011) L'Homme contre le loup. Une guerre de deux mille ans, Paris, Fayard.
  6. ^ C.W. Previté-Orton, The Early History of the House of Savoy, (Cambridge University Press, 1912), p. 30.
  7. ^ C.W. Previté-Orton, Early History of the House of Savoy, (Cambridge University Press, 1912), p. 32.
  8. ^ "The Apocalyptic Dossier: 967-1033". Boston University. Boston University Center for Millennial Studies.
  9. ^ Landes, Richard. "Introduction to Apocalypticism and Millennialism". Catholic Resources for Bible, Liturgy, Art, and Theology. Archived from the original on July 2, 2011. Retrieved May 7, 2017.
  10. ^ "A Brief History of the Apocalypse". www.abhota.info. Retrieved 2017-05-07.
  11. ^ Revelation Chapter 20
  12. ^ Boyett, Jason (2005). Pocket Guide to the Apocalypse: The Official Field Manual for the End of the World. Relevant Media Group. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-0-9760357-1-8.
  13. ^ Strandberg, Todd; James, Terry (2003). Are You Rapture Ready?. New York City: Dutton. pp. 35–36. ISBN 978-0-525-94737-0.
  14. ^ Norwich, John (1991). Byzantium: the Apogee, pp. 279–80. London: Penguin. ISBN 0-670-80252-2.
  15. ^ Richard Brzezinski (1998). History of Poland: Old Poland, the Piast Dynasty, p. 18. ISBN 83-7212-019-6.
  16. ^ Black's Picturesque Tourist of Scotland, Adam and Charles Black. Published 1861, Scotland.
  17. ^ Meynier, Gilbert (2010). L'Algérie cœur du Maghreb classique: De l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (658-1518). Paris: La Découverte. p. 50.
  18. ^ The Gesta Normannorum Ducum of William of Jumièges, Orderic Vitalis, and Robert of Torigni, Ed. & Trans. Elizabeth M.C. van Houts, Vol. I (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1992), pp. 80-85.
  19. ^ Benvenuti, Gino (1985). Le Repubbliche Marinare. Amalfi, Pisa, Genova e Venezia. Rome: Newton & Compton Editori. p. 42. ISBN 88-8289-529-7.
  20. ^ Meynier, Gilbert (2010). L'Algérie, cœur du Maghreb classique: De l'ouverture islamo-arabe au repli (658-1518). Paris: La Découverte. p. 50.
  21. ^ History of Song (1346).
  22. ^ Parker, Philip (2010). World History. Dorling Kindersley Limited. p. 430. ISBN 9781405352574.
  23. ^ Panton, James (2011). Historical Dictionary of the British Monarchy. Scarecrow Press. p. 16. ISBN 9780810874978.
  24. ^ Stalls, Clay (1995). Possessing the land: Aragon's expansion into Islam's Ebro frontier under Alfonso the Battler, 1104-1134. Brill. p. viii. ISBN 90-04-10367-8.
  25. ^ Richard Brzezinski (1995). History of Poland: Old Poland – The Piast Dynasty, p. 18. ISBN 83-7212-019-6.
  26. ^ Constable, Giles (2008). Three Treatises From Bec on the Nature of Monastic Life. University of Toronto Press. p. 28. ISBN 9781442691629.
  27. ^ "Conrad II - Holy Roman emperor". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 8 April 2018.
  28. ^ McGrath, Alister E. (2013). Christian History: An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons. p. 104. ISBN 9781118337790.
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