American Psychological Association

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused with the American Psychiatric Association or the American Philosophical Association.
American Psychological Association
American Psychological Association logo.svg
FormationJuly 1892; 129 years ago (1892-07)
Headquarters750 First Street, NE
Washington, D.C., U.S.
Coordinates38°54′00″N 77°00′27″W / 38.89988°N 77.00753°W / 38.89988; -77.00753Coordinates: 38°54′00″N 77°00′27″W / 38.89988°N 77.00753°W / 38.89988; -77.00753
Membership
Over 122,000
President
Jennifer F. Kelly, PhD, ABPP[1]
CEO
Arthur C. Evans Jr., PhD
Websitewww.apa.org

The American Psychological Association (APA) is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States,[2] with over 122,000 members, including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants, and students.[2] It has 54 divisions—interest groups for different subspecialties of psychology or topical areas.[3] The APA has an annual budget of around $115m.[4]

Profile[]

The APA has task forces that issue policy statements on various matters of social importance, including abortion, human rights, the welfare of detainees, human trafficking, the rights of the mentally ill, IQ testing, sexual orientation change efforts, and gender equality.[5]

Governance[]

APA is a corporation chartered in the District of Columbia. APA's bylaws describe structural components that serve as a system of checks and balances to ensure democratic process. The organizational entities include:

  • APA President. The APA's president is elected by the membership. The president chairs the Council of Representatives and the Board of Directors. During his or her term of office, the president performs such duties as are prescribed in the bylaws.
  • Board of Directors. The board is composed of six members-at-large, the president-elect, president, past-president, treasurer, recording secretary, CEO, and the chair of the American Psychological Association of Graduate Students (APAGS). The board oversees the association's administrative affairs and presents an annual budget for council approval.
  • APA Council of Representatives. The council has sole authority to set policy and make decisions regarding APA's roughly $60 million annual income. It is composed of elected members from state/provincial/territorial psychological associations, APA divisions and the APA Board of Directors.
  • APA Committee Structure: Boards and Committees. Members of boards and committees conduct much of APA's work on a volunteer basis. They carry out a wide variety of tasks suggested by their names. Some have responsibility for monitoring major programs, such as the directorates, the journals and international affairs.[6]

Good Governance Project[]

The Good Governance Project (GGP) was initiated in January 2011 as part of the strategic plan to "[assure] APA's governance practices, processes and structures are optimized and aligned with what is needed to thrive in a rapidly changing and increasingly complex environment."[7] The charge included soliciting feedback and input stakeholders, learning about governance best practices, recommending whether change was required, recommending needed changes based on data, and creating implementation plans.[7] The June 2013 GGP update on the recommended changes can be found in the document "Good Governance Project Recommended Changes to Maximize Organizational Effectiveness of APA Governance".[8] The suggested changes would change APA from a membership-based, representational structure to a corporate structure. These motions were discussed and voted upon by council on July 31, 2013, and August 2, 2013.[8]

Organizational structure[]

APA comprises an executive office, a publishing operation, offices that address administrative, business, information technology, and operational needs, and five substantive directorates:

  • the Education Directorate accredits doctoral psychology programs and addresses issues related to psychology education in secondary through graduate education;[9]
  • the Practice Directorate engages on behalf of practicing psychologists and health care consumers;[10]
  • the Public Interest Directorate advances psychology as a means of addressing the fundamental problems of human welfare and promoting the equitable and just treatment of all segments of society;[11]
  • the Public and Member Communications Directorate is responsible for APA's outreach to its members and affiliates and to the general public;[12]
  • the Science Directorate provides support and voice for psychological scientists.[13]

Membership and title of "psychologist"[]

Main article: Psychologist § United States and Canada

APA policy on the use of the title psychologist is contained in the Model Act for State Licensure of Psychologists:[14] psychologists have earned a doctoral degree in psychology and may not use the title "psychologist" and/or deliver psychological services to the public, unless the psychologist is licensed or specifically exempted from licensure under the law. State licensing laws specify state specific requirements for the education and training of psychologists leading to licensure. Psychologists who are exempted from licensure could include researchers, educators, or general applied psychologists who provide services outside the health and mental health field.

Full membership with the APA in United States and Canada requires doctoral training whereas associate membership requires at least two years of postgraduate studies in psychology or approved related discipline. The minimal requirement of a doctoral dissertation related to psychology for full membership can be waived in certain circumstances where there is evidence that significant contribution or performance in the field of psychology has been made.[15]

Affiliate organizations[]

American Psychological Association Services, Inc. (APASI) was formed in 2018 and is a 501(c)(6) entity, which engages in advocacy on behalf of psychologists from all areas of psychology.

Awards[]

Each year, the APA recognizes top psychologists with the "Distinguished Contributions" awards; these awards are the highest honors given by the APA.

Publications[]

Main category: American Psychological Association publications

The American Psychologist is the association's official journal. APA also publishes over 70 other journals encompassing most specialty areas in the field; APA's Educational Publishing Foundation (EPF) is an imprint for publishing on behalf of other organizations.[16] Its journals include:[17]

The APA has published hundreds of books.[18] Among these books are: the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (and a concise version titled Concise Rules of APA Style), which is the official guide to APA style;[19][20] the APA Dictionary of Psychology;[21] an eight-volume Encyclopedia of Psychology;[22] and many scholarly books on specific subjects such as Varieties of Anomalous Experience.[23] The APA has also published children's books under the Magination Press imprint, software for data analysis, videos demonstrating therapeutic techniques, reports, and brochures.[24]

The Psychologically Healthy Workplace program[]

The Psychologically Healthy Workplace Program (PHWP) is a collaborative effort between the American Psychological Association and the APA Practice Organization designed to help employers optimize employee well-being and organizational performance. The PHWP includes APA's Psychologically Healthy Workplace Awards, a variety of APA Practice Organization resources, including PHWP Web content, e-newsletter, podcast and blog, and support of local programs currently implemented by 52 state, provincial and territorial psychological associations as a mechanism for driving grassroots change in local business communities. The awards are designed to recognize organizations for their efforts to foster employee health and well-being while enhancing organizational performance. The award program highlights a variety of workplaces, large and small, profit and non-profit, in diverse geographical settings. Applicants are evaluated on their efforts in the following five areas: employee involvement, work-life balance, employee growth and development, health and safety, and employee recognition. Awards are given at the local and national level.[25]

APA style[]

Main article: APA style

American Psychological Association (APA) style is a set of rules developed to assist reading comprehension in the social and behavioral sciences. Used to ensure clarity of communication, the layout is designed to "move the idea forward with a minimum of distraction and a maximum of precision."[26] The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association contains the rules for every aspect of writing, especially in the social sciences from determining authorship to constructing a table to avoiding plagiarism and constructing accurate reference citations. "The General Format of APA is most commonly used to cite sources within the social sciences. General guidelines for a paper in APA style includes: typed, double-spaced on standard-sized paper (8.5" x 11") with 1" margins on all sides. The font should be clear and highly readable. APA recommends using 12 pt. Times New Roman font."[27] The seventh edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association was published in October 2019.[28]

Databases[]

APA maintains a number of databases, including PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, PsycBOOKS, PsycEXTRA, PsycCRITIQUES, PsycTESTS, and PsycTHERAPY.[29][30] APA also operates a comprehensive search platform, PsycNET, covering multiple databases.[31]

PsycINFO is a bibliographic database that contains citations and summaries dating from the 19th century, including journal articles, book chapters, books, technical reports, and dissertations within the field of psychology. As of January 2010, PsycINFO has collected information from 2,457 journals.[32]

History[]

Founding[]

The APA was founded in July 1892 at Clark University by a small group of around 30 men; by 1916 there were over 300 members.[33] The first president was G. Stanley Hall. During World War II, the APA merged with other psychological organizations, resulting in a new divisional structure. Nineteen divisions were approved in 1944; the divisions with the most members were the clinical and personnel (now counseling) divisions. From 1960 to 2007, the number of divisions expanded to 54.[34] Today the APA is affiliated with 60 state, territorial, and Canadian provincial associations.[35]

Dominance of clinical psychology[]

Due to the dominance of clinical psychology in APA, several research-focused groups have broken away from the organization. These include the Psychonomic Society in 1959 (with a primarily cognitive orientation), and the Association for Psychological Science (which changed its name from the American Psychological Society in early 2006) in 1988 (with a broad focus on the science and research of psychology). Theodore H. Blau was the first clinician in independent practice to be elected president of the American Psychological Association in 1977.[36]

Presidents[]

APA Presidents from the present to 1892

Divisions[]

The APA has 56 numbered divisions, 54 of which are currently active:[37]

  1. – the first division formed by the APA, in 1945, concerned with issues across the subdisciplines of psychology[38]
  2. Society for the Teaching of Psychology – provides free teaching material for students and teachers of psychology and bestows many awards[39]
  3. Society for Experimental Psychology and Cognitive Science
  4. Currently vacant – initially the Psychometric Society, which decided against becoming an APA division[40]
  5. – previously named Evaluation, Measurement, and Statistics[41]
  8. Society for Personality and Social Psychology
  9. Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI)
  11. Currently vacant – initially Abnormal Psychology and Psychotherapy, which joined division 12 in 1946[40]
  12. – established in 1948 with 482 members, in 1962 it created clinical child psychology as its first section[42]
  13. Society of Consulting Psychology
  14. Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology
  16. – originally formed as the Division of School Psychologists in 1945, renamed in 1969[43]
  23. Society for Consumer Psychology
  27. : Division of Community Psychology
  40. Clinical Neuropsychology
  41. American Psychology-Law Society
  48. : Peace Psychology Division
  53. Society of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology
  56. – addresses issues of trauma with projects, working groups and via collaborations[44]

Positions on homosexuality[]

Cause of homosexuality[]

Further information: Biology and sexual orientation, Environment and sexual orientation, and Homosexuality and psychology

The APA states the following:

There is no consensus among scientists about the exact reasons that an individual develops a heterosexual, bisexual, or homosexual orientation. Although much research has examined the possible genetic, hormonal, developmental, social, and cultural influences on sexual orientation, no findings have emerged that permit scientists to conclude that sexual orientation is determined by any particular factor or factors. Many think that nature and nurture both play complex roles; most people experience little or no sense of choice about their sexual orientation.[45]

Conversion therapy[]

Further information: Conversion therapy

In 1975, APA issued a supporting statement that homosexuality is not a mental disorder.[46][47] There is a concern in the mental health community that the advancement of conversion therapy itself causes social harm by disseminating inaccurate views about sexual orientation and the ability of homosexual and bisexual people to lead happy, healthy lives.[48] Most mainstream health organizations are critical of conversion therapy, and no mainstream medical organization endorses conversion therapy.[48][49][50][51][note 1]

The APA adopted a resolution in August 2009 stating that mental health professionals should avoid telling clients that they can change their sexual orientation through therapy or other treatments. The approval, by APA's governing Council of Representatives, came at APA's annual convention, during which a task force presented a report[52] that in part examined the efficacy of so-called "reparative therapy", or sexual orientation change efforts.

The "Resolution on Appropriate Affirmative Responses to Sexual Orientation Distress and Change Efforts" also advises that parents, guardians, young people, and their families avoid sexual orientation treatments that portray homosexuality as a mental illness or developmental disorder and instead seek psychotherapy, social support, and educational services "that provide accurate information on sexual orientation and sexuality, increase family and school support, and reduce rejection of sexual minority youth."[53]

Same-sex marriage[]

Further information: Same-sex marriage

The APA adopted a resolution stating that it is unfair and discriminatory to deny same-sex couples legal access to civil marriage and to all its attendant rights, benefits, and privileges. It also filed an amicus brief in the federal court case in which Judge Vaughn Walker struck down California's constitutional ban on same-sex marriage.[54] The APA later praised the decision and denied the existence of any "scientific justification" for a ban on same-sex marriage.[55]

In August 2011, the APA clarified their support of same-sex marriage in light of continued research suggesting that the same community benefits accepted as result of heterosexual marriage apply to same-sex couples as well. Dr. Clinton Anderson, associate executive director of the APA and director of the Office on Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Concerns, said that, prior to this research, "We knew that marriage benefits heterosexual people in very significant ways, but we didn't know if that would be true for same-sex couples". Anderson also put forward the APA's view that merely allowing same-sex civil unions is an inadequate option: "Anything other than marriage is, in essence, a stigmatization of same-sex couples. Stigma does have negative impacts on people."[56]

APA internship crisis for graduate students[]

The APA is the main accrediting body for U.S. clinical and counseling psychology doctoral training programs and internship sites.[57] APA-accredited Clinical Psychology PhD and PsyD programs typically require students to complete a one-year clinical internship in order to graduate (or a two-year part-time internship). However, there is currently an "internship crisis" as defined by the American Psychological Association, in that approximately 25% of clinical psychology doctoral students do not match for internship each year.[58][59] This crisis has led many students (approximately 1,000 each year) to re-apply for internship, thus delaying graduation, or to complete an unaccredited internship, and often has many emotional and financial consequences.[60] Students who do not complete an APA accredited internships in the U.S. are barred from certain employment settings, including VA hospitals, the military, and cannot get licensed in some states, such as Utah and Mississippi.[61][62] Additionally, some post-doctoral fellowships and other employment settings require or prefer an APA accredited internship.[61] The APA has been criticized for not addressing this crisis adequately and many psychologists and graduate students have petitioned for the APA to take action by regulating graduate training programs.

Warfare and the use of torture[]

A year after the establishment of the Human Resources Research Organization by the U.S. military in 1951, the CIA began funding numerous psychologists (and other scientists) in the development of psychological warfare methods under the supervision of APA treasurer . Donald O. Hebb, the APA president in 1960 who was awarded the APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award in 1961, defended the torture of research subjects, arguing that what was being studied was other nations' methods of brainwashing. Former APA president Martin Seligman spoke upon the invitation of the CIA on his animal experimentation where he shocked a dog unpredictably and repeatedly into total, helpless passivity. Former APA president Ronald F. Levant, upon visiting Guantanamo Bay, affirmed that psychologists were present during the torture of prisoners, arguing that their presence was to "add value and safeguards" to interrogations.[63] Former APA president Gerald Koocher argued, referring to allegations of continuing systemic abuse by psychologists, that such allegations were originating from "opportunistic commentators masquerading as scholars".[64]

When it emerged that psychologists, as part of the Behavioral Science Consultation Team, were advising interrogators in Guantánamo and other U.S. facilities on improving the effectiveness of the "enhanced interrogation techniques", the APA called on the U.S. government to prohibit the use of unethical interrogation techniques and labeled specific techniques as torture.[65] Critics pointed out that the APA declined to advise its members not to participate in such interrogations.[66][67] In September 2008, the APA's members passed a resolution stating that psychologists may not work in settings where "persons are held outside, or in violation of, either International Law (e.g., the UN Convention Against Torture and the Geneva Conventions) or the U.S. Constitution (where appropriate), unless they are working directly for the persons being detained or for an independent third party working to protect human rights."[68] The resolution became official APA policy in February 2009. However, the APA has refused to sanction those members known to have participated in and, in some cases, designed abusive interrogation techniques used in Guantanamo Bay, Iraq, and Afghanistan interrogation centers.[69][70][71]

The APA directive was in contrast to the American Psychiatric Association ban in May 2006 of all direct participation in interrogations by psychiatrists,[72] and the American Medical Association ban in June 2006 of the direct participation in interrogations by physicians.[73] An independent panel of medical, military, ethics, education, public health, and legal professionals issued a comprehensive report in November 2013 that "charged that U.S. military and intelligence agencies directed doctors and psychologists working in U.S. military detention centers to violate standard ethical principles and medical standards to avoid infliction of harm".[74] One group of psychologists in particular, the Coalition for an Ethical Psychology, has been very harsh in its criticism of the APA stance on its refusal to categorically prohibit members from participating in any phase of military interrogations. They recently stated their continuing disagreement with APA leadership in an open letter posted on their website on October 31, 2012, in which they reiterated their condemnation of torture and enhanced interrogation techniques, and called for the APA to require its members to refuse participation in military conducted interrogations of any kind.[75]

Amending the Ethics Code[]

In February 2010, the APA's Council of Representatives voted to amend the association's Ethics Code[76] to make clear that its standards can never be interpreted to justify or defend violating human rights. Following are the two relevant ethical standards from the Ethics Code, with the newly adopted language shown in bold:

1.02, Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other Governing Legal Authority

If psychologists' ethical responsibilities conflict with law, regulations, or other governing legal authority, psychologists clarify the nature of the conflict, make known their commitment to the Ethics Code and take reasonable steps to resolve the conflict consistent with the General Principles and Ethical Standards of the Ethics Code. Under no circumstances may this standard be used to justify or defend violating human rights.

1.03, Conflicts Between Ethics and Organizational Demands

If the demands of an organization with which psychologists are affiliated or for whom they are working are in conflict with this Ethics Code, psychologists clarify the nature of the conflict, make known their commitment to the Ethics Code, and take reasonable steps to resolve the conflict consistent with the General Principles and Ethical Standards of the Ethics Code. Under no circumstances may this standard be used to justify or defend violating human rights.[77]

In its 2013 "Policy Related to Psychologists' Work in National Security Settings and Reaffirmation of the APA Position Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment the APA condemns the use of any of the following practices by military interrogators trying to elicit anti-terrorism information from detainees, on the ground that "there are no exceptional circumstances whatsoever, whether induced by a state of war or threat of war, internal political instability or any other public emergency, that may be invoked as a justification."[68]

Hoffman report[]

In November 2014, the APA ordered an independent review into whether it cooperated with the government's use of torture of prisoners during the George W. Bush administration, naming Chicago attorney David H. Hoffman to conduct the review.[78] On July 2, 2015, a 542-page report was issued to the special committee of the board of directors of the APA relating to ethics guidelines, national security interrogations, and torture.[79] The report concluded that the APA secretly collaborated with the Bush administration to bolster a legal and ethical justification for the torture of prisoners.[80] Furthermore, the report stated that the association's ethics director Stephen Behnke and others had "colluded with important Department of Defense officials to have the APA issue loose, high-level ethical guidelines that did not constrain" the interrogation of terrorism suspects at Guantanamo Bay. The association's "principal motive in doing so was to align APA and curry favor with DOD."[81] An APA official said that ethics director Stephen Behnke had been "removed from his position as a result of the report" and indicated that other firings or sanctions might follow.[81]

On July 14, 2015, the APA announced the retirement of its CEO, Norman B. Anderson, effective the end of 2015, and of Deputy Chief Executive Officer , effective August 15, 2015, and the resignation of Rhea K. Farberman, APA's executive director for public and member communication. Anderson had been CEO since 2003.[82][83]

Ban on involvement[]

For at least a decade, dissident psychologists within and outside the APA, including the group WithholdAPAdues,[84] had protested the involvement of psychologists "in interrogations at CIA black sites and Guantánamo". Prior to the release of the Hoffman report, which undermined the APA's repeated denials and showed that some APA leaders were complicit in torture, the dissidents were ignored or ridiculed.[85][86]

On August 7, 2015, just weeks following the release of the Hoffman report, the APA council of representatives met at the association's 123rd annual convention in Toronto, Ontario. At that meeting, the APA council passed Resolution 23B, which implemented the 2008 membership vote to remove psychologists from settings that operate outside international law, and banning the participation of psychologists in unlawful interrogations. With 156 votes in favor and only one vote against, the resolution passed with the near unanimous approval of council members.[87] The adoption of Resolution 23B aligned the APA's policy with that of the American Psychiatric Association and that of the American Medical Association by prohibiting psychologists from participating in interrogations deemed illegal by the Geneva Conventions and the United Nations Convention against Torture.[86]

Implementation of the 2008 Membership Vote to Remove Psychologists from All Settings That Operate Outside of International Law (NBI #23B)

Council is asked to approve the substitute main motion below that includes a revised resolution with a new title, Resolution to Amend the 2006 and 2013 Council Resolutions to Clarify the Roles of Psychologists Related to Interrogation and Detainee Welfare in National Security Settings, to Further Implement the 2008 Petition Resolution, and to Safeguard Against Acts of Torture and Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment in All Settings. This resolution further aligns the APA policy definition for "cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment" (in the 2006 and 2013 Council resolutions) with the United Nations (UN) Convention Against Torture and ensures that the definition applies broadly to all individuals and settings; offers APA as a supportive resource for ethical practice for psychologists, including those in military and national security roles; prohibits psychologists from participating in national security interrogations; clarifies the intended application of the 2008 petition resolution... and calls for APA letters to be sent to federal officials to inform them of these policy changes and clarifications of existing APA policy.[88]

The ban will not "prohibit psychologists from working with the police or prisons in criminal law enforcement interrogations".[87]

Class action lawsuit by members claiming deceptive dues assessments[]

In 2013 a class action lawsuit was brought against APA on behalf of approximately 60,000 of its 122,000 members who were licensed clinicians. Those members paid an additional $140 practice assessment fee as part of their membership dues every year beginning in 2001 to fund the lobbying arm of APA, the APA Practice Organization (APAPO). The lawsuit accused APA of using deceptive means by representing that the assessment was mandatory for APA membership even though payment of the assessment was only required for membership in the APAPO. In 2015 APA settled the case by establishing a $9.02 million settlement fund to be used to pay claims made by members of APA who paid the practice assessment, as well as attorneys' fees and certain other costs. APA agreed to change its policies to make clear that the APAPO membership dues are not required for membership in APA.[89][90][91][92][93]

Ethical controversies[]

Conversion therapy[]

See also: Conversion therapy

Conversion therapy (also referred to as reparative therapy) is the practice of attempting to change the patient’s sexual orientation to heterosexual. Among the most prominent supporters of conversion therapy is the National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality (NARTH), which continues to characterize homosexuality as a mental disorder, despite the declassification of homosexuality as a disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) in 1973.[94] One of the most notable members of NARTH is founder and former president Dr. Joseph Nicolosi, who practices conversion therapy and has published case studies some of his clients.[95]

The American Psychological Association (APA) task force report on appropriate therapeutic responses to sexual orientation concluded that conversion therapy was "unlikely to be successful" and involved "some risk of harm".[94] Likewise, the U.S. Surgeon General issued a call to action in 2001, concluding that "there is no valid scientific evidence that sexual orientation can be changed".[96]

In the task force's report, the APA recommends that therapists adopt an affirmative, supportive approach for clients who present for therapy to change their sexual orientation rather than attempting to convert their sexual orientation.[94]

Animal research[]

Currently, the APA enforces ethical standards to protect nonhuman animal subjects from unnecessary harm during the research process. Some of the requirements for using nonhuman animals in research include: proper justification of the research, maintenance and inspection of appropriate housing for the animals, minimizing discomfort and stress whenever possible, and preference of noninvasive measures.[97]

Despite these guidelines, however, many advocacy groups exist to either reduce or eliminate animal research, arguing that it is unethical to capture animals and subject them to research procedures.[98][99][100] Indeed, a recent study showed that only 52% of the public approves of animal research.[101] Some scientists believe that this low approval rate is primarily the result of receiving manipulative misinformation from anti-animal research groups.[102]

Evidence-based practice[]

A current controversy among mental health professionals involves the use of the terms evidence based practice or evidence based treatment. Proponents of the evidence-based treatments movement argue that it is unethical to administer a therapeutic intervention with questionable research support when another treatment's effectiveness has been demonstrated for the client's condition, particularly when the intervention in question is potentially harmful (such as conversion therapy). Proponents argue that administration of an empirically questionable treatment violates the general Principle A of the ethical principles of psychologist: Beneficence and nonmaleficence (or "do no harm").[103]

Critics of the evidence-based practice movement note ethical concerns regarding the research and practice of evidenced-based treatments themselves. Despite the demonstrated effectiveness of a range of treatments, including psychoanalytic and psychodynamic therapies,[104] evidence based practice is a term now associated only with short-term, manualized treatments which have been evaluated in randomized control trials. Among the problems associated with an exclusive focus on randomized control trials to determine treatment effectiveness is that the relevance of these trials (conducted on highly selected patient populations) is unclear for psychologists working with real-word patients.[105] Furthermore, while the public may assume evidence-based is synonymous for "likely to help", research studies indicate that most patients do not show meaningful improvement in so-called evidence based treatments.[106]

Psychologists involved in torture[]

During the Iraq War, Amnesty International released a series of reports, calling attention to violations of the human rights of prisoners in Abu Ghraib Prison and American detention camps, and the role of the United States and the United Kingdom in enacting these abuses.[107][108][109] The reports called on the occupying powers to protect the human rights of any detained civilians by giving them a fair and timely trial, not detaining civilians arbitrarily, and treating all people ethically while in detention. Amnesty International also called for justice, by trying individual perpetrators of abuse for their crimes.[109]

Despite these reports, the Bush administration instituted "enhanced" interrogation techniques, stating publicly that reported abuses were isolated incidents, and not standard practice. Internal memos from the Federal Bureau of Investigation revealed that an executive order by George W. Bush had sanctioned certain interrogation techniques, such as playing loud music, depriving prisoners of sleep, and stripping prisoners of their clothing.[110]

The CIA reportedly required involvement from health professionals to continue its practice of "enhanced" interrogations on detainees, to maintain the lawfulness of their practices. Psychiatrists and medical doctors were reluctant to participate in interrogations, however some psychologists participated.[111] A recently released report by a group of psychologists alleges the same, implicating a number of APA officials as well.[112]

After the abuses were made public, the APA created a task force called Psychological Ethics and National Security (PENS) and released a report stating that the APA Code of Ethics applies to psychologists working in any setting, and that psychologists do not facilitate or participate in any degrading or cruel behavior, referring back to the APA's 1986 Resolution Against Torture. The report also called on psychologists to report any suspected or observed inhumane treatment to the appropriate authorities and obey federal law.[113]

See also[]

Notes[]

  1. ^ Mainstream health organizations critical of conversion therapy include the American Medical Association, American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, the American Counseling Association, the National Association of Social Workers, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Association of School Administrators, the American Federation of Teachers, the National Association of School Psychologists, the American Academy of Physician Assistants, and the National Education Association.

References[]

  1. ^ "APA President". apa.org. Retrieved March 1, 2018.
  2. ^ Jump up to: a b "About APA". APA.org. Retrieved December 14, 2012.
  3. ^ "Divisions of the APA". APA.org. Retrieved December 14, 2012.
  4. ^ "APA Reports". APA.org. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
  5. ^ "Council Policy Manual". APA.org. Retrieved December 14, 2012.
  6. ^ "APA Governance". APA.org. Retrieved July 20, 2013.
  7. ^ Jump up to: a b "Good Governance Project". APA.org. July 2, 2013. Retrieved July 20, 2013.
  8. ^ Jump up to: a b "Good Governance Project Recommended Changes to Maximize Organizational Effectiveness of APA Governance" (PDF). American Psychological Association. June 28, 2013. Retrieved July 20, 2013.
  9. ^ "Education Directorate of the American Psychological Association". APA.org. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
  10. ^ "APA Practice Directorate". APA.org. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
  11. ^ "Public Interest Directorate". APA.org. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
  12. ^ "Public and Member Communications". APA.org. Retrieved December 14, 2012.
  13. ^ "Science Directorate". APA.org. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
  14. ^ "Model Act for State Licensure of Psychologists". APA.org. Retrieved December 14, 2012.
  15. ^ "Division Officers Handbook". APA.org. Retrieved October 14, 2012.
  16. ^ "About APA Publications and Databases". APA.org. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
  17. ^ "American Psychological Association Publications Search". Retrieved May 1, 2011.
  18. ^ A search of the Library of Congress catalog on September 24, 2014, for books published by the American Psychological Association returned 1583 results, but some of these results are other media that are misclassified as books.
  19. ^ Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: APA. 2010 [1929]. ISBN 9781433805592. OCLC 316736612.
  20. ^ Concise Rules of APA Style (6th ed.). Washington, DC: APA. 2010. ISBN 9781433805608. OCLC 317697841.
  21. ^ VandenBos, Gary R., ed. (2007). APA Dictionary of Psychology (1st ed.). Washington, DC: APA. ISBN 9781591473800. OCLC 65407150.
  22. ^ Kazdin, Alan E., ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of Psychology. Washington, DC; Oxford; New York: APA; Oxford University Press. ISBN 9781557981875. OCLC 42692282.
  23. ^ Cardeña, Etzel; Lynn, Steven Jay; Krippner, Stanley, eds. (2014) [2000]. Varieties of Anomalous Experience: Examining the Scientific Evidence (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: APA. ISBN 9781433815294. OCLC 843454608.
  24. ^ "Publications & Databases". APA.org. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
  25. ^ "Psychologically Healthy Workplace Program". APApracticecentral.org. Archived from the original on February 20, 2015. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
  26. ^ "APA Style". APAstyle.org. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
  27. ^ "APA Formatting and Style Guide". Purdue OWL. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  28. ^ "Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Seventh Edition".
  29. ^ "APA Databases & Electronic Resources". APA.org. Retrieved August 11, 2015.
  30. ^ "American Psychological Association (APA) - Information for CAUL". Council of Australian University Librarians. Retrieved August 11, 2015.
  31. ^ "PsycNET". University of San Francisco: Gleeson Library. Archived from the original on September 5, 2015. Retrieved August 11, 2015.
  32. ^ "PsycINFO Journal Coverage List". APA.org. January 2010. Archived from the original on January 20, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2010.
  33. ^ 125 years of the American Psychological Association. Pickren, Wade E.,, Rutherford, Alexandra, 1971- (First ed.). Washington, DC. 2018. ISBN 978-1-4338-2790-7. OCLC 1004369830.CS1 maint: others (link)
  34. ^ "APA History and Archives". APA.org. Retrieved September 24, 2014.
  35. ^ "State and Provincial Psychological Associations". APA.org. Retrieved September 24, 2014.
  36. ^ "Noted psychologist Theodore Blau". St. Petersburg Times. February 1, 2003. Retrieved September 14, 2007.
  37. ^ "Divisions of APA". American Psychological Association. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
  38. ^ "Social psychology network". Social Psychology Network. September 10, 2006. Retrieved July 31, 2012.
  39. ^ Kendra Cherry. "Division 2 - teaching of psychology". About.com (New York Times group). Retrieved July 31, 2012.
  40. ^ Jump up to: a b APA Division 16 School Psychology- President's Message, Worrell, F. C. (2007). "Beyond Division16, Inside APA". The School Psychologist. 61 (1): 1–28.
  41. ^ "Society for Quantitative and Qualitative Methods". Society for Quantitative and Qualitative Methods. Retrieved May 19, 2015.
  42. ^ Donald K. Routh (February 28, 1994). Clinical psychology since 1917: Science, practice and organization. New York, NY: Springer. pp. 40–42. ISBN 978-0306444524.
  43. ^ T. Steuart Watson, Christopher H. Skinner, ed. (2004). "American Psychological Association—Division 16 (School Psychology)". Encyclopedia of School Psychology. New York, NY: Springer. ISBN 978-0306484803.
  44. ^ "ISTSS: Global connections: International collaborators and affiliates". International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. Archived from the original on August 25, 2011. Retrieved July 31, 2012.
  45. ^ "Answers to your questions for a better understanding of sexual orientation and homosexuality". APA.org. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
  46. ^ Spitzer, R. L. (1981). "The diagnostic status of homosexuality in DSM-III: a reformulation of the issues". American Journal of Psychiatry. 138 (2): 210–15. doi:10.1176/ajp.138.2.210. PMID 7457641.
  47. ^ "An instant cure". Time. 103 (13). April 1, 1974. p. 59. Archived from the original on January 26, 2007.
  48. ^ Jump up to: a b "Just the Facts About Sexual Orientation & Youth: A Primer for Principals, Educators and School Personnel". American Academy of Pediatrics, American Counseling Association, American Association of School Administrators, American Federation of Teachers, American Psychological Association, American School Health Association, The Interfaith Alliance, National Association of School Psychologists, National Association of Social Workers, National Education Association. 1999. Retrieved August 28, 2007.
  49. ^ "American Medical Association policy regarding sexual orientation". American Medical Association. July 11, 2007. Archived from the original on January 5, 2010. Retrieved July 30, 2007.
  50. ^ Committee on Adolescence (1993). "Homosexuality and Adolescence" (PDF). Pediatrics. 92 (4): 631–634. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 11, 2007. Retrieved August 28, 2007.
  51. ^ "Physician Assistants vote on retail clinics, reparative therapy". SpiritIndia.com. May 29, 2007. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
  52. ^ Glassgold, Judith M.; Beckstead, Lee; Drescher, Jack; Greene, Beverly; Miller, Robin Lin; Worthington, Roger L.; Anderson, Clinton W. (September 28, 2009). "Report of the American Psychological Association Task Force on Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation" (PDF). APA.org. Retrieved October 13, 2012.
  53. ^ "Resolution on Appropriate Affirmative Responses to Sexual Orientation Distress and Change Efforts". APA.org. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
  54. ^ "Brief of the American Psychological Association, The California Psychological Association, the American Psychiatric Association, and the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy as amici curiae in support of plaintiff-appellees - Appeal from United States District Court for the Northern District of California Civil Case No. 09-CV-2292 VRW (Honorable Vaughn R. Walker)" (PDF). Retrieved November 5, 2010.
  55. ^ "APA Praises Prop 8 Decision as Victory for Science, Human Dignity". APA.org. August 4, 2010. Retrieved October 14, 2012.
  56. ^ Alden Mahler Levine, CNN. "Psychological association calls for legalization of same-sex marriage". CNN.com. Retrieved October 14, 2012.
  57. ^ "About Accreditation". APA.org. Retrieved October 14, 2012.
  58. ^ "Doctoral Internships in Professional Psychology". APA.org. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
  59. ^ "2011 APPIC Match Statistics - Phase I". APPIC: Association of Psychology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers. Association of Psychology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers. February 25, 2011. Retrieved July 16, 2013.
  60. ^ Vasquez, Melba (April 2011). "The internship crisis: strategies and solutions". Monitor on Psychology. 42 (4): 5.
  61. ^ Jump up to: a b "Frequently Asked Questions: Internship Applicants - Match Eligibility & Participation". Association of Psychology Postdoctoral and Internship Centers. Retrieved July 16, 2013.
  62. ^ Smith Bailey, Deborah (April 2004). "Why accreditation matters: Accreditation guidelines set the standard for your education—and can ease your way to licensure". GradPSYCH Magazine.
  63. ^ Chalquist, Craig. "Why I Am Not a Member of the American Psychological Association". Retrieved September 21, 2014.
  64. ^ Koocher, Gerald (February 2006). "Speaking against torture". Monitor on Psychology. 37 (2): 5.
  65. ^ "American Psychological Association calls on U.S. government to prohibit the use of unethical interrogation techniques". APA.org. August 20, 2007. Archived from the original on May 13, 2007.
  66. ^ "Psychologists and Guantanamo". NPR.org. August 19, 2008. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
  67. ^ "American Psychological Association Sees No Evil". ACLU.org. June 16, 2009. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
  68. ^ Jump up to: a b "Policy Related to Psychologists' Work in National Security Settings and Reaffirmation of the APA Position Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment". APA.org. 2013. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
  69. ^ Ackerman, Spencer (January 22, 2014). "US psychology body declines to rebuke member in Guantánamo torture case". The Guardian.
  70. ^ "A Call for Annulment of the APA's PENS Report". Coalition for an Ethical Psychology. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
  71. ^ Reisner, Steve; Eidelson, Roy; Soldz, Stephen; Olson, Brad; Arrigo, Jean Maria; Bond, Trudy (February 11, 2014). "APA Fails to Sanction Psychologist in Guantanamo Torture Case". Counterpunch.org. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
  72. ^ "Position Statement on Psychiatric Participation in Interrogation of Detainees" (PDF). American Psychiatric Association. May 2006. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
  73. ^ "Opinion 2.068 - Physician Participation in Interrogation". American Medical Association Ethics Group. November 2006. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
  74. ^ "Interrogation/Torture and Dual Loyalty". Institute on Medicine as a Profession. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
  75. ^ "Open Letter" (PDF). Coalition for an Ethical Psychology. Retrieved March 31, 2014.
  76. ^ "American Psychological Association amends ethics code to address potential conflicts among professional ethics, legal authority and organizational demands". APA.org. February 24, 2010. Retrieved February 20, 2015.
  77. ^ "Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct". APA.org. 2010. Retrieved October 14, 2012.
  78. ^ "American Psychological Association Bolstered C.I.A. Torture Program, Report Says". The New York Times. Retrieved May 1, 2015.
  79. ^ "July 2, 2015 report to the special committee of the board of directors of the American Psychological Association" (PDF).
  80. ^ Risen, James (July 10, 2015). "Outside Psychologists Shielded U.S. Torture Program, Report Finds". The New York Times.
  81. ^ Jump up to: a b Miller, Greg (July 10, 2015). "Inquiry: Psychologists group colluded with Pentagon, CIA on interrogations". The Washington Post.
  82. ^ Ackerman, Spencer (July 14, 2015). "Three senior officials lose their jobs at APA after US torture scandal". The Guardian. Retrieved July 15, 2015.
  83. ^ "APA Announces Retirements and Resignation of Senior Leaders" (Press release). American Psychological Association. July 14, 2015. Retrieved July 14, 2015.
  84. ^ "The Sphinx: A site for inquiry and innovation in psychoanalysis, Withholding APA Dues in Protest over Policy on Torture". Archived from the original on February 1, 2015.
  85. ^ The Encyclopedia of Peace Psychology, Volume 1, By Daniel J. Christie, Wiley-Blackwell, December 2011, pp 580-581, ISBN 1405196440
  86. ^ Jump up to: a b "No More Torture: World's Largest Group of Psychologists Bans Role in National Security Interrogations". Democracy Now!. August 10, 2015.
  87. ^ Jump up to: a b Risen, James (August 7, 2015). "Psychologists Approve Ban on Role in National Security Interrogations". The New York Times.
  88. ^ "Implementation of the 2008 Membership Vote to Remove Psychologists from All Settings That Operate Outside of International Law (NBI #23B)" (PDF). APA.org. 2015. Retrieved August 11, 2015.
  89. ^ "American Psychological Association will repay members $9 million in settlement". Washington Post. May 6, 2015.
  90. ^ "Psychological Association Reaches $9 Million Settlement With Members". Associations Now. May 11, 2015.
  91. ^ "APA Practice Assessment Fee Class Action Settlement". Top Class Actions. April 30, 2015.
  92. ^ Grohol, John M. (April 14, 2013). "APA Sued Over Misleading Membership Fees — Again". psychcentral.com.
  93. ^ "APAPO dues assessment draws new lawsuit". June 2, 2013.
  94. ^ Jump up to: a b c APA Task Force on Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation. "Report of the Task Force on Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation" (PDF). American Psychological Association. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Retrieved May 31, 2015.
  95. ^ "Joseph Nicolosi – Reparative Therapy". Thomas Aquinas Psychological Clinic. Retrieved May 31, 2015.
  96. ^ Office of the Surgeon General (US); Office of Population Affairs (US) (2001). "The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Promote Sexual Health and Responsible Sexual Behavior". U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved May 31, 2015.
  97. ^ American Psychological Association. "Guidelines for Ethical Conduct in the Care and Use of Nonhuman Animals in Research". American Psychological Association. Retrieved June 9, 2015.
  98. ^ The Humane Society of the United States. "The Humane Society of the United States". The Humane Society of the United States. Retrieved June 9, 2015.
  99. ^ People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. "People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals". PETA. Retrieved June 9, 2015.
  100. ^ The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. "The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals". The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. Retrieved June 9, 2015.
  101. ^ Pew Research Center (July 9, 2009). "Public Praises Science; Scientists Fault Public, Media". Pew Research Center. Retrieved June 9, 2015.
  102. ^ Bennett, Allyson J. "Animal research: The bigger picture and why we need psychologists to speak out". American Psychological Association. Retrieved June 9, 2015.
  103. ^ Lilienfeld, Scott O. (June 21, 2016). "Psychological Treatments That Cause Harm". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2 (1): 53–70. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.531.9405. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00029.x. PMID 26151919. S2CID 26512757.
  104. ^ Steinert, Christiane; Munder, Thomas; Rabung, Sven; Hoyer, Jürgen; Leichsenring, Falk (October 2017). "Psychodynamic Therapy: As Efficacious as Other Empirically Supported Treatments? A Meta-Analysis Testing Equivalence of Outcomes". American Journal of Psychiatry. 174 (10): 943–953. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2017.17010057. PMID 28541091.
  105. ^ Gnaulati, Enrico (September 15, 2018). "Overlooked Ethical Problems Associated With the Research and Practice of Evidenced-Based Treatments". Journal of Humanistic Psychology: 002216781880021. doi:10.1177/0022167818800219.
  106. ^ Shedler, Jonathan (June 2018). "Where Is the Evidence for 'Evidence-Based' Therapy?". Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 41 (2): 319–329. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2018.02.001. PMID 29739529.
  107. ^ Amnesty International (April 15, 2003). "Iraq: Responsibilities of the occupying powers". Amnesty International. Retrieved June 5, 2015.
  108. ^ Khan, Irene (March 19, 2003). "Open letter from AI Secretary General, Irene Khan to President George Bush, Prime Minister Tony Blair, Prime Minister José Maria Aznar and President Saddam Hussein". Amnesty International. Retrieved June 5, 2015.
  109. ^ Jump up to: a b Amnesty International (March 18, 2003). "Iraq: People come first: Amnesty International's 10-point appeal to all parties involved in possible military action in Iraq". Amnesty International. Retrieved June 5, 2015.
  110. ^ American Civil Liberties Union. "American Civil Liberties Union: ACLU Interested Persons Memo on FBI documents concerning detainee abuse at Guantanamo Bay". ACLU. Retrieved June 5, 2015.
  111. ^ Hajjar, Lisa (May 7, 2015). "How the World's Largest Psychological Association Aided the CIA's Torture Program". The Nation. Retrieved June 5, 2015.
  112. ^ Stephen Soldz; Nathaniel Raymond; Steven Reisner (April 2015). "Report on American Psychological Association's Role in Bush-Era Interrogation Program". The New York Times. Retrieved June 5, 2015.
  113. ^ Presidential Task Force on Psychological Ethics and National Security (June 2005). "Report of the American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Psychological Ethics and National Security" (PDF). American Psychological Association. Retrieved June 7, 2015.

External links[]

Retrieved from ""