Anti-Japanese sentiment in China
Anti-Japanese sentiment in China is an issue with modern roots (post-1868). Modern anti-Japanese sentiment in China is often rooted in nationalist or historical conflict, particularly in Japan's history textbook controversies.
Japan seized concessions in areas of China towards the end of the Qing Dynasty. Dissatisfaction with the settlement and the Twenty-One Demands by the Imperial Japanese government led to a severe boycott of Japanese products in China in 1915. Bitterness in China persists over the Second Sino-Japanese War and Japan's post-war actions. This sentiment may also be at least to some extent influenced by issues related to Chinese people in Japan.
According to a 2017 BBC World Service Poll, mainland Chinese people hold the largest anti-Japanese sentiment in the world, with 75% of Chinese people viewing Japan's influence negatively, and 22% expressing a positive view. Anti-Japanese sentiment in China was at its highest in 2014 since the poll was first conducted in 2006 and was up 16 percent over the previous year.[citation needed] However, anti-Japanese sentiment significantly decreased by 2018; a poll done in 2018 by Genron NPO showed that 42.2% of Chinese people looked positively to Japan, up from 31.5% in 2017.[1]
Effects of World War II[]
Most reasons for anti-Japanese sentiment in China can be directly traced to the Second Sino-Japanese War, which was one theatre of World War II. As a consequence of the war, China suffered 7 million to 16 million civilian deaths and 3 million military casualties.[2][3] In addition, the war caused an estimated US$383.3 billion in damage and created 95 million refugees. Manchuria came under Japanese control in 1931 as a state named Manchukuo. Many major cities thereafter, including Nanjing, Shanghai, and Beijing were occupied in 1937 by the Japanese. Notable incidents included the Nanking Massacre. In Manchuria, Unit 731, a medical unit of the Japanese army, researched biological warfare using Chinese civilians as test subjects, who were referred to as human 'logs' in the medical journals. Women from many Asian countries, including China, were made to serve as prostitutes in military brothels (and were often referred to as "comfort women") under Japanese occupation.
Postwar issues[]
There is deep resentment over the veneration of Japanese war veterans in the Yasukuni Shrine, where a number of war criminals are enshrined, treated as kami or important spirits, and the fact that the shrine openly states that the purpose of Japanese military involvement in Asia was to bring prosperity and liberation to Asians. This is further exacerbated by attempts to whitewash Japan's role in the war in certain school history textbooks, such as by softening some statements and removing others. That some popular media such as comics,[4] books, movies, or documentaries depicting Japanese wartime involvement in atrocities are withdrawn due to nationalist or popular sentiment further contributes to this image. As examples, critics point to the withdrawal of Iris Chang's The Rape of Nanking from planned publication and the censorship of scenes of the Nanking Massacre from the Japanese theatrical release of The Last Emperor.[5]
China refused war reparations from Japan[6] in the 1972 Joint Communiqué. Japan gave official development assistance (ODA), amounting to 3 trillion yen (US$30 billion). According to estimates, Japan accounts for more than 60 percent of China's ODA received. About 25 percent of the funding for all of China's infrastructure projects between 1994 and 1998 — including roads, railways, telecom systems and harbours — came from Japan.[7]
Japanese aid to China was rarely formally publicized to the Chinese people by the Chinese government, until Japan announced that aid was to be phased out. It was finally publicly acknowledged by Chinese premier Wen Jiabao during his April 2007 trip to Japan.[8]
There is a perception among some Chinese that the United States, Japan, and Taiwan are attempting to contain China. Japan's more recent debate to revise Article 9, the "No War" clause, is viewed with suspicion of possible re-militarization. Anti-Japanese sentiment in China is also highlighted by the branding of several prominent Taiwanese politicians (especially those who advocate for Taiwanese independence) as "Japanese running dogs" and hanjian (traitors) by the state-run media.
Contemporary issues[]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Japanese-and-dogs-are-not-allowed_statement_from_a_restaurant_in_Higher_Education_Mega_Center_2007.jpg/250px-Japanese-and-dogs-are-not-allowed_statement_from_a_restaurant_in_Higher_Education_Mega_Center_2007.jpg)
Issues from the Second World War continue to generate ill-feeling in China. One issue is Japanese disposal of chemical weapons left in China by Japanese troops at the end of the war. The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), which came into effect in April 1997, and the Memorandum on the Destruction of Japanese Discarded Chemical Weapons in China, signed on 30 July 1999, required Japan to dispose of an estimated 700,000 abandoned chemical weapons (Japanese estimate). Japan was unable to complete the work on time and requested a five-year extension.[11][12][13]
Chinese plaintiffs suing the Japanese government over accidents caused by the unearthing of poison gas have had difficulty gaining satisfaction from Japanese courts. Forty-three people who were injured in a 2003 accident and five relatives of one who died have been unsuccessful in their claim for 1.43 billion yen (US$11.8 million; €9.1 million), as well as for medical costs and loss of income due to health problems.[14][15] Such issues continue to cause ill-will.
On March 13, 2007, the Tokyo High Court upheld a lower court ruling and rejected compensation claims from four Chinese people who were injured and one whose relative died from being exposed to chemical weapons abandoned by Imperial Japan in China at the end of the war. Presiding Judge Hiromitsu Okita said the Japanese government was not liable for death or injury from the weapons, saying it could not have conducted a proper search for weapons in another country. The plaintiffs had sought a combined 80 million yen from the Japanese government. The court said the state was not obligated to conduct a search or to pay damages "because it cannot be said that the defendants could have prevented the outcome" of the death and injuries in the case, according to Japan Times.[16] There were at least 700,000 pieces of chemical weapons Japan buried in China with site information destroyed by Japanese military according to the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[17] Such lawsuits have been filed before,[18] but Japanese courts have rejected most claims filed by individual WWII war crime victims.[19]
In March 2007, Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe sparked a row over "comfort women." A group of about 120 lawmakers from Abe's governing party want the prime minister to revise the official apology. The lawmakers claim there is no evidence to suggest the Japanese military was directly involved in coercing the women. They said they would present the government with a petition next week demanding a rewrite of the apology, which they consider a stain on Japan's national honor. Abe told reporters in his Tokyo office that he shared the belief that there was no direct proof of the military's involvement. "The fact is, there is no evidence to prove there was coercion," he said according to LA Times.[20][21] Abe said the government would cooperate with a study to be conducted by a group of Liberal Democratic party MPs who are sceptical of claims that thousands of Asian women were forced to work in Japanese military brothels before and during the Second World War according to Guardian.[22] After the condemnation around the world, Abe made a qualified apology, saying "I express my sympathy for the hardships they suffered and offer my apology for the situation they found themselves in." Abe told the legislature when pressed on what he would say to the aging survivors of the "comfort women" system: "As the prime minister, I am apologizing here" according to LA Times.[23]
Continued visits by Japanese politicians to the Yasukuni Shrine, and the recent approval of a textbook that downplays the Nanking Massacre and the role of sex slaves in the Imperial Japanese Army have further aroused Chinese sentiment. Japan's campaign to become a permanent member of the UN Security Council has met with stiff opposition among Chinese people. The Diaoyu Islands / Senkaku Islands, currently controlled and claimed by Japan, but claimed by both PRC and ROC, continue to be a sticking point and a symbolic focus of anti-Japanese sentiment in China.
The buildup of anti-Japanese sentiment, aided by websites, had been noted by Western media in early 2005. In spring 2005, anti-Japanese demonstrations were organized by anti-Japanese elements in several cities across China. The Internet, including instant messaging services, was used in organizing groups of demonstrators to take part in protests. Many were calling for a boycott of Japanese products. The result was an apology by the Japanese PM. Concern at anti-Japanese sentiment is believed to be behind the decision of Chinese censors to ban the film Memoirs of a Geisha on February 1, 2006. The fact that Chinese actresses played Japanese geisha, often wrongly perceived as prostitutes in China, had caused considerable controversy among some elements of the Chinese population.
There have been several reports that stores, restaurants, public institutions and hospitals in China refuse to serve Japanese customers because Japan has not apologized for the invasion of China.[24][25]
Anti-Japanese sentiment at sporting events[]
Asian Cup 2004[]
During the Asian Cup 2004, an association football championship held in China, Chinese fans booed the Japanese team during the playing of the Japanese national anthem at matches against several countries, including China. Except for the match against Bahrain, Japanese supporters were instructed by the local police not to use "banners, flags, musical instruments, or wear team uniforms" and were asked to refrain from cheering. The flight to Beijing, the venue of the final match against China, was delayed for two hours due to Chinese protesters at Beijing International Airport. After defending champion Japan defeated China in the final by 3-1, a Chinese protest broke out, and the Japanese ambassador's car was severely damaged.
2007 FIFA Women's World Cup[]
At the last game of Group A of 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup held in Hangzhou, tens of thousands of Chinese spectators in attendance cheered for the German team and booed the Japanese team vehemently. Japan was defeated by Germany and knocked out of the tournament prematurely. The Japanese players later held up a banner to thank China ("Arigato 謝謝 (Xie Xie) China") at the end of the game while the audience applauded in response. The incident caused minor controversy in China over the Chinese nationalism and anti-Japanese sentiment displayed at the game.[26][27]
The game was originally planned to be held on September 18, the anniversary of the Mukden Incident. Because of the sensitive nature of the date in China, it was held one day earlier.[28]
East Asian Cup 2008[]
During the East Asian Cup 2008, Chinese fans booed the Japanese team during the playing of the Japanese national anthem again, at the first match for the Japanese team with the North Korean national team in Chongqing on February 17. The attitude of Chinese fans had not improved despite police warnings before the game.[29][30] After the match between the Japanese team and the Chinese national team on February 20, a small group of Chinese fans burnt the Japanese national flag and booed the Japanese team with the derogatory term, xiǎo Rìběn (小日本, "puny Japanese").[31]
Diaoyu/Senkaku Islands dispute[]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/2012_Anti-Japan_demonstrations2.jpg/220px-2012_Anti-Japan_demonstrations2.jpg)
In 2012, the Japanese government decided to purchase the Diaoyu/Senkaku Islands from a Japanese family. Riots broke out in most Chinese major cities, and Japanese-owned business were smashed. In Shenzhen, the rioting crowd tried to take over a government building, demanding the Chinese government to declare war with Japan. There were multiple reports where people who were using Japanese products were attacked in the public. There was a report that a man in Hainan Province was stabbed to death for saying that Japan may win if a war between China and Japan broke out.[citation needed]
Anti-Japanese film industry[]
Anti-Japanese sentiment can be seen in anti-Japanese war films produced and displayed in mainland China. More than 200 anti-Japanese films are made in China each year.[32] In one situation involving a more moderate anti-Japanese war film, the government of China temporarily banned 2000's Devils on the Doorstep, partly because it depicted a Japanese soldier being friendly with Chinese villagers.[33]
See also[]
- China–Japan relations
- History of China–Japan relations
- 2012 China anti-Japanese demonstrations
- Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan
- Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea
- Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States
- Anti-Japan War Online
- Anti-Western sentiment in China
- Chinese nationalism
- Ethnic issues in China
References[]
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- ^ Chalmers Johnson (March 19, 2005). "The real 'China threat'". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 2011-07-13.CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
- ^ The Looting of Asia. Chalmers Johnson.
- ^ Haldenby, Andrew. "Article". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on March 25, 2007.
- ^ "Joseph Chapel, "Denial of the Holocaust and the Rape of Nanking" (2004)". Retrieved 28 March 2016.
- ^ "MOFA: Joint Communique of the Government of Japan and the Government of the People's Republic of China". Retrieved 28 March 2016.
- ^ "Asia Times Online - News from greater China; Hong Kong and Taiwan". Archived from the original on 11 February 2004. Retrieved 28 March 2016.CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
- ^ Letter from China: Wen reveals himself as a new kind of Chinese leader, By Howard W. French, International Herald Tribune, April 19, 2007
- ^ Fitzgerald, John (1998). Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution. Stanford University Press. p. 120.
- ^ Robert A. Bickers and Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom. "Shanghai's 'Dogs and Chinese Not Admitted' Sign: Legend, History and Contemporary Symbol." China Quarterly, no. 142 (1995): 444-66 Archived 2012-03-26 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Budget for the Destruction of Abandoned Chemical Weapons in China". MOFA. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
- ^ "WWII Japanese Chemical Weapons in China Explained: An Interview". China.org.cn. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
- ^ "Search - Global Edition - The New York Times". International Herald Tribune. 2009-03-29. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
- ^ "JURIST - Paper Chase: Japan court refuses to award damages in WWII-era chemical weapons leak case". Jurist.law.pitt.edu. 2007-03-13. Archived from the original on 2012-02-25. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
- ^ "Japan's Top Court Poised to Kill Lawsuits by Chinese War Victims". Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved July 12, 2007.
- ^ "Japan off hook for China gas weapons ills: court". The Japan Times. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
- ^ "MOFA: Budget for the Destruction of Abandoned Chemical Weapons in China". Retrieved 28 March 2016.
- ^ Chinese victims of Japanese chemical weapon sue Japan's government - International Herald Tribune
- ^ ZNet |Japan | Japan's Top Court Poised to Kill Lawsuits by Chinese War Victims
- ^ "WWII sex slavery issue revived - Los Angeles Times". Archived from the original on September 27, 2015.
- ^ "Abe misquoted? Probably not. | anarchy japan". Japan.shadowofiris.com. 2007-03-07. Archived from the original on 2009-05-19. Retrieved 2012-05-29.
- ^ McCurry, Justin (2007-03-08). "Japan to study wartime 'comfort women'". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2010-04-25.
- ^ "A qualified Abe apology - Los Angeles Times". Archived from the original on September 27, 2015.
- ^ "海南一医院挂牌称“日本人拒不认罪禁止入内" Archived 2005-07-25 at the Wayback Machine” (南方都市报, July 15, 2005)
- ^ "深センのバーで 「日本人の入店お断り」" (人民網日本語版, May 23, 2002)
- ^ なでしこ日本「謝謝」に中国で大論争 (in Japanese). Daily Sports. 2007-09-21. Archived from the original on 2007-12-21. Retrieved 2007-09-24.
- ^ 被民族主义狼奶毒化的中国愤青 刘晓波 日本女足展开横幅向中国致谢 (in Chinese). Observe China. 2007-09-19. Archived from the original on 2007-10-14. Retrieved 2007-09-24.
- ^ サッカー女子W杯日独戦、満州事変の日はずして実施 (in Japanese). 中国情報局. 2007-09-18. Retrieved 2007-09-24.
- ^ 4年前の教訓生かされず、日朝戦でブーイング サッカー東アジア選手権 (in Japanese). Sankei Shimbun. 2008-02-17. Archived from the original on 2008-02-20. Retrieved 2008-02-18.
- ^ 市局部署2008年东亚足球锦标赛决赛安保工作 (in Chinese). 重庆市公安局. 2008-02-05. Archived from the original on 2008-02-07. Retrieved 2008-02-18.
- ^ 日の丸燃やし、敗戦悔しがる=騒乱防止へ3000人動員-中国当局 (in Japanese). Jiji Press. 2008-02-20. Archived from the original on 2014-12-11. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
- ^ "Special Report: Why China's film makers love to hate Japan". Reuters. 2013-05-25.
- ^ Matthew Forney (2005-12-10). "Why China Loves to Hate Japan". Time. Archived from the original on December 14, 2005.
- Anti-Japanese sentiment in China
- China–Japan relations