Chuck Austen

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Chuck Austen
BornChuck Beckum
NationalityAmerican
Area(s)Writer, Artist
Children3

Chuck Austen (born Chuck Beckum)[1] is an American comic book writer and artist, television writer and producer. In the comics industry, he is known for his work on U.S. War Machine, The Avengers, JLA, Action Comics and the X-Men franchise, and in television, he is known for co-creating the animated TV series Tripping the Rift[2] and producing the first season of Steven Universe and acting as a co-showrunner on She-Ra and the Princesses of Power.[3]

Early life[]

Chuck Austen was born Chuck Beckum.[1] He grew up a military brat,[4] and after his parents divorced, he was raised by his single mother in a housing project.[5]

Career[]

Austen began his career as an in the 1980s, illustrating a number of independent series including an issue of Scott McCloud's Zot! and several stories in Alan Moore's Miracleman, mostly under his birth name "Chuck Beckum", which he later abandoned out of a desire to disassociate from his father's family name.[1] Around the same time, Austen wrote and drew the semi-autobiographical black-and-white pornographic comic book series Strips (Rip Off Press), as well as Hardball (Malibu Comics). In the late 1980s, Austen drew the first five issues for the short-lived series , published for Slave Labor Graphics. He also provided art to the lesser-known series such as Open Season and The Trouble with Girls as well as a few DC Comics properties including a Phantom Lady serial for Action Comics Weekly and a short Green Flame story for Secret Origins. Before taking a break from comics, Austen also drew an issue of Disney's The Little Mermaid limited series.[1]

In the early 2000s, Austen started regularly working for Marvel Comics, writing and illustrating the weekly maxi-series U.S. War Machine for then-recently launched Marvel MAX imprint.[4] The series drew controversy not only for its violent content, but also because it debuted the day after the September 11, 2001 attacks. In 2003, Austen followed up with U.S. War Machine 2.0, which was published the day after U.S. President George W. Bush's March 17, 2003 ultimatum to Iraqi President Saddam Hussein to leave Iraq,[6] prompting Austen to jokingly comment, "I feel like I should stop doing this book so the world will stay at peace."[7] Using the creative liberties provided due to the fact that series was set outside the mainline Marvel Universe, Austen wrote Rhodes' boss Tony Stark as more pacifist and business-minded than his mainstream counterpart, and Rhodes himself as the proactive protector.[4] Also in 2003, Austen launched another series for Marvel MAX, the six-issue The Eternal with artist Kev Walker, a reimagining of Jack Kirby's Eternals.[7]

In 2002, Austen took over Uncanny X-Men with issue #410 and remained on the title until #443. The two-year run was the most lengthy writing assignment in Austen's mainstream career,[1] although it was not well received by the fans of the franchise.[8][9][10] His controversial[11][12] run saw the return of Havok[13] and Polaris[14] to the X-Men, the introduction of Havok's love interest Annie Ghazikhanian,[15] and the addition of several existing characters to the X-Men team, including Northstar,[16] Juggernaut,[17] M,[18] and Husk.[19] The most controversial storyline revealed the identity of Nightcrawler's father: an immortal mutant known as Azazel.[20][10][9] Austen moved to New X-Men as part of the ReLoad initiative, and wrote the series for nine issues.[21][22] During this run, he showcased the beginning of the relationship between Cyclops and Emma Frost following the death of Jean Grey[23] and introduced new versions of the character Xorn[24] and the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants.[25] Michael Aronson of Silver Bullet Comics, while praising Austen's characterization of Professor X and Annie Ghazikhanian, excoriated Austen for what Aronson saw as his obsession with relationships and sex, and the sexist nature of his characterization of Husk.[26] According to Thor K. Jensen of UGO Entertainment, fans disliked the romantic pairing of Angel and Husk; Jensen cites that storyline as emblematic of critical reception to Austen's run on X-Men.[27]

In 2003, Austen wrote a brief run on Captain America, finishing the storylines that were started by the outgoing writer John Ney Rieber.[28] In 2004, Austen took over The Avengers, introducing a new, female Captain Britain (since renamed Lionheart), a single mother thrust into the realm of super-heroes after being killed as an innocent bystander during a fight between the Avengers and the Wrecking Crew, only to be resurrected by the original Captain Britain.[29] The second arc, which saw Austen writing former Avengers U.S. Agent and Namor the Sub-Mariner attempting to liberate a Middle Eastern country from its corrupt leadership, served as launching pad for the short-lived New Invaders series.[30][31][32] Non-superhero Marvel work of the time includes The Call of Duty, a number of mini-series conceived in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks that were written primarily by Austen (with one series written by Bruce Jones) and featured firefighters and emergency service workers dealing with paranormal phenomena in the Marvel Universe,[33] as well as Eden's Trail with artist Steve Uy, a series in "Marvelscope" (landscape) format created to capitalize on the burgeoning manga market which resulted in controversy when Uy publicly disowned the project, calling it a "bad dream".[34]

In 2004, Austen began self-publishing WorldWatch, a superhero series which he described as similar to Warren Ellis's The Authority with more explicit depictions of sex, violence and realpolitik.[35] The last page of Worldwatch #2 featured an announcement from the publisher stating that Austen had been fired, and that he would be replaced by a writer named Sam Clemens (which is the real name of American writer Mark Twain). In a subsequent interview, Austen revealed that this was intended as a joke (since he himself was the publisher and thus could not be fired from the book) and expressed disappointment in the fact that most readers had not understood it.[5]

Also in 2004, Austen returned to DC Comics, taking over Action Comics. Fans criticized Austen for resurrecting the long-forgotten Silver Age feud between Lois Lane and Lana Lang over the love of Superman, with Lana in particular divorcing her longtime husband Pete Ross in the process.[5] Austen left the title after ten issues,[36] and the following two issues were scripted by a writer named "J.D. Finn". While readers suspected Finn to be Austen, he speculated that Finn was actually then–Action Comics editor Eddie Berganza and denied using the pseudonym.[5][9]

In 2006, Austen wrote Boys of Summer, an English language adult-themed manga illustrated by and published by TokyoPop.[2] Copies of the first volume were pulled from a number of bookstores in May that year due to its graphic content.[36] Publishers Weekly named Boys of Summer one of the Top Ten manga/manhwa of 2006, calling it both "a titillating and edgy reading experience."[37] Subsequent news reports indicated that the series had been cancelled even though the other two volumes were completed and both creators had been paid for the work.[36]

Austen spent most of the 2010s working in various capacities in animation on such shows as The Cleveland Show, Steven Universe, Dawn of the Croods and The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle. Most recently, he served as the co-showrunner on She-Ra and the Princesses of Power.[3]

In 2007, Austen released his first prose novel, .[38] In 2011, writing as Charles Olen Austen, he released the three-book series , followed by in 2013.[39]

In 2020, Austen returned to comics with , a five-part series with artist Pat Oliffe, published digitally via Comixology.[40]

Reception[]

During his stint at the Big Two, Austen invented the expression "Seven Deadly Trolls". In Austen's point of view, there was a small group of people, not representative of the wider comics readership, that used internet message boards, blogs and newsgroups to attack him on a professional and personal level.[41] Austen has stated that he received death threats from fans and had certain comic book store owners refuse to stock any comics written by him.[5] He also admitted to taking online criticism of his work personally, and made a decision to stop doing interviews in August 2003.[42] In a 2004 interview, Austen explained that decision as a result of a "bad day".[41]

Influences[]

Austen has expresseed admiration towards such comic book creators as Brian Michael Bendis, Paul Jenkins, Bill Sienkiewicz, J. Michael Straczynski, Ron Garney, Bret Blevins, J. H. Williams III, Al Williamson, John Romita, Sr., Rumiko Takahashi, Katsuhiro Otomo and Mitsuru Adachi.[4]

Techniques[]

Austen creates his art digitally, using mostly Macs and sometimes PCs. Austen utilizes a variety of programs including Ray Dream Studio and 3D Studio Max to compose scenes which he then finishes in Photoshop.[4]

Personal life[]

Austen and his wife have two daughters[4] and a son.[3]

He identifies himself as humanitarian and anti-racist.[5] In Austen's view, the Republican Party discriminates against women, and he especially disliked the Bush administration.[4]

Bibliography[]

Early work[]

  • Eclipse:
    • Alien Encounters (as artist, anthology):
      • "I Shot the Last Martian" (written by , in #2, 1985)
      • "Another Man's Shoes" (written by , in #5, 1986)
      • "Freefall!" (written by Len Wein, in #6, 1986)
      • "Picture Me and You" (written by Bruce Jones, in #7, 1986)
    • Miracleman #6–7 (as artist, written by Alan Moore, 1986) collected in Miracleman: The Red King Syndrome (hc, 128 pages, 1991, ISBN 1-5606-0035-7; tpb, 1991, ISBN 1-56060-036-5)
      • In 2014, Marvel re-released these stories in Miracleman #7–8 (where Moore is credited as "The Original Writer") as part of the series' reprint with remastered and recolored art.
      • The remastered and recolored versions of the stories are collected in Miracleman: The Red King Syndrome (hc, 224 pages, Marvel, 2014, ISBN 0-7851-5464-7)
    • Zot! #19: "Getting to 99" (as artist, written by Scott McCloud, 1988) collected in Zot! The Complete Black and White Collection (tpb, 576 pages, It Books, 2008, ISBN 0-0615-3727-6)
    • James Bond 007: Licence to Kill (as artist — with Mike Grell, Thomas Yeates and Stan Woch; graphic novel adaptation by , 48 pages, 1989, ISBN 0-9130-3591-2)
    • (as artist — with ; co-written by Gerard Jones and Will Jacobs, one-shot, 1989)
  • The Badger (written by Mike Baron, First Comics):
    • The Complete Badger Volume 4 (tpb, 144 pages, 2008, ISBN 1-6001-0235-2) includes:
      • The Badger #20–22 (as inker — on Bill Reinhold, 1987)
      • The Badger #23: "Bob" (as artist, 1987)
  • Slave Labor Graphics:
    • (written by Dan Vado):
      • Samurai Penguin #3–4 (as layout artist — finishes by (#3) and (#4), 1987)
      • Samurai Penguin #5 (as letterer, 1987)
    • #1–5 (as artist, written by Dan Vado, 1987–1988) collected in The Works: The Hero Sandwich Collection (tpb, 200 pages, 1997, ISBN 0-9431-5106-6)
    • #4: "A Day at the Beach" (script and art, co-feature, 1987) collected in Dr. Radium Collection Volume 3 (tpb, 128 pages, 2005, ISBN 1-59362-013-6)
  • #1–2: "Cecilia and Garrison" (as layout artist — finishes by Basilio Amaro; co-written by and , co-feature, , 1987)
  • Open Season #6: "There is Stress in This Room" (as artist, written by , co-feature, Renegade Press, 1988)
  • Comico:
  • Buck Rogers Comics Module #1–2 (with , as inker — on Frank Cirocco; co-written by Flint Dille and Buzz Dixon, TSR, 1989)
  • Strips #1–12 (script and art, with issues #1–9 published by Rip Off Press in 1989–1991 and #10–12 self-published as in 1997)
    • In 1997, White Buffaloe also began reprinting the early issues with additional material as Strips: The Special Edition, but stopped only after two issues.
    • The only other publication by White Buffaloe besides the five issues of Strips was , written and drawn by Austen, also in 1997.
  • #1–4 (script and art, Aircel, 1991)
  • Disney's The Little Mermaid #1 (as artist, written by Peter David, W. D. Publications, 1992)
  • Cherry:
    • Cherry's Jubilee #1: "Double Your Trouble" (as artist, written by , anthology, Tundra, 1992)
    • Cherry Poptart #14 (as inker — with Larry Todd and Reed Waller; written and drawn by Larry Welz, Kitchen Sink, 1993)
  • : "Hair of the Wolf" (as artist, written by , anthology one-shot, , 1994)

Pin-ups[]

Covers[]

DC Comics[]

Marvel Comics[]

  • Elektra vol. 2 (as artist, written by Brian Michael Bendis (#1–6) and Greg Rucka (#7–8), Marvel Knights, 2001–2002) collected as:
    • Elektra: The Scorpio Key (collects #1–6, tpb, 160 pages, 2002, ISBN 0-7851-0843-2)
    • Ultimate Collection: Elektra by Greg Rucka (includes #7–8, tpb, 384 pages, 2012, ISBN 0-7851-6393-X)
  • U.S. War Machine (Marvel MAX):
    • U.S. War Machine #1–12 (script and art, 2001–2002) collected in U.S. War Machine: Unbound (tpb, 288 pages, 2002, ISBN 0-785-10854-8)
    • U.S. War Machine 2.0 #1–3 (with Christian Moore, 2003)
  • Marvel Mangaverse: Ghost Riders (script and art, one-shot, 2002) collected in Marvel Mangaverse: The Complete Collection (tpb, 392 pages, 2018, ISBN 1-302-90765-4)
  • Ultimate X-Men #13–14 (with Esad Ribić, Ultimate Marvel, 2002) collected in Ultimate X-Men Volume 2 (hc, 336 pages, 2003, ISBN 0-7851-1130-1; tpb, 2007, ISBN 0-7851-2856-5)
  • The Call of Duty:
    • The Call of Duty: The Brotherhood/The Wagon (tpb, 160 pages, 2003, ISBN 0-7851-0971-4) collects:
      • The Call of Duty: The Brotherhood #1–6 (with David Finch, 2002–2003)
      • The Call of Duty: The Wagon #1–4 (with Danijel Žeželj, 2002–2003)
    • The Call #1–4 (with Patrick Olliffe, 2003)
  • X-Men:
    • Uncanny X-Men (with Ron Garney, Sean Phillips (#413–415, 428), Kia Asamiya, Philip Tan, (#427), Takeshi Miyazawa (#434) and Salvador Larroca, 2002–2004) collected as:
      • X-Men: Unstoppable (collects #410–424, tpb, 440 pages, 2019, ISBN 1-3029-1612-2)
      • X-Men: Trial of the Juggernaut (collects #425–436 and Exiles #28–30, tpb, 392 pages, 2019, ISBN 1-3029-2037-5)
        • Includes the "Animals" short story (art by Clayton Henry) from X-Men Unlimited #40 (anthology, 2003)
        • Includes the "Control" short story (art by ChrisCross) from X-Men Unlimited #48 (anthology, 2003)
      • X-Men: Reloaded (includes #437–443, tpb, 416 pages, 2020, ISBN 1-302-92401-X)
        • Also collects New X-Men #155–156 (written by Austen, art by Salvador Larroca, 2004)
        • Also collects X-Men vol. 2 #157–164 (written by Austen, art by Salvador Larroca, 2004)
    • X-Men 2: The Movie Adaptation (tpb, 144 pages, 2003, ISBN 0-7851-1162-X) includes:
    • Exiles (with Clayton Henry and Jim Calafiore, 2003–2004) collected as:
      • Ultimate Collection: Exiles Volume 2 (includes #26–30, tpb, 440 pages, 2009, ISBN 0-7851-3888-9)
        • Includes the "Dark and Scary Things" short story (art by Skottie Young) from X-Men Unlimited #41 (anthology, 2003)
      • Ultimate Collection: Exiles Volume 3 (includes #38–40 and 43–45, tpb, 496 pages, 2009, ISBN 0-7851-3889-7)
  • (with Ben Lai, promotional giveaway one-shot packaged with the board game, 2003)
  • Eden's Trail #1–5 (with Steve Uy, 2003)
  • Captain America vol. 4 (scripted by Austen from plots by John Ney Rieber, art by Trevor Hairsine and Jae Lee, Marvel Knights, 2003) collected as:
    • The Extremists (includes #8–11, tpb, 120 pages, 2003, ISBN 0-7851-1102-6)
    • Ice (collects #12–16, tpb, 128 pages, 2003, ISBN 0-7851-1103-4)
    • Marvel Knights: Captain America Volume 1 (includes #8–16, tpb, 408 pages, 2016, ISBN 0-7851-9633-1)
  • #1: "Blow Up" (co-written by Austen and Bill Jemas, art by Phil Winslade, anthology, 2003)
  • The Eternal #1–6 (with Kev Walker, Marvel MAX, 2003–2004)
  • Tutenstein (with Ron Lim, promotional giveaway one-shot, 2004)
  • The Avengers vol. 3 (with Olivier Coipel, Sean Chen (#79) and Scott Kolins, 2004) colected as:
    • Lionheart of Avalon (collects #77–81, tpb, 120 pages, 2004, ISBN 0-7851-1338-X)
    • Once an Invader (collects #82–84, tpb, 152 pages, 2004, ISBN 0-7851-1481-5)
      • Includes New Invaders #0 (co-written by Austen and , art by , 2004)

Other publishers[]

  • Witchblade #66 (with , Top Cow, 2003) collected in Witchblade Compendium Volume 2 (tpb, 1,280 pages, 2008, ISBN 1-5824-0731-2)
  • WorldWatch #1–3 (of 6 planned)[42] (Austen is credited as "Sam Clemens" in issue #3; with Tom Derenick, self-published as , 2004)
  • (with , series of bandes dessinées):
    • L'infini (published in French by Les Humanoïdes Associés):
      • La citadelle du vide (46 pages, 2004, ISBN 2-7316-1624-5)
      • Mémoire interdite (46 pages, 2005, ISBN 2-7316-1714-4)
      • Organic transfer (46 pages, 2008, ISBN 2-7316-1822-1)
    • Flywires (collected in English by Humanoids Publishing, tpb, 144 pages, 2010, ISBN 1-5946-5004-7)
  • Boys of Summer Volume 1 (with , 192 pages, 2006, TokyoPop, ISBN 1-5981-6545-3)
    • Volumes 2 and 3 were published in 2019 in eBook format.
  • Kirby and Dad (retitled Kirby and Me; script and art, webcomic, 2010–2011)
  • #1–5 (with Pat Oliffe, self-published digitally via Comixology, 2020–2021)

Filmography[]

References[]

  1. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Chuck Austen (USA). Kees Kousemaker's Lambiek Comiclopedia. Retrieved November 14, 2011.
  2. ^ Jump up to: a b Singh, Arune (February 15, 2006). "IN DEPTH WITH CHUCK AUSTEN (PART 2)". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on February 17, 2006.
  3. ^ Jump up to: a b c White, Cody (March 2, 2020). "A Dream of a Job: An Interview with Chuck Austen". ComicWatch. Archived from the original on March 13, 2020.
  4. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Giles, Keith (September 6, 2001). "Austen in the Machine: Chuck Austen Interview". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on December 21, 2001.
  5. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Singh, Arune (February 14, 2006). "IN DEPTH WITH CHUCK AUSTEN (PART ONE)". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on February 20, 2006.
  6. ^ "Bush: 'Leave Iraq within 48 hours'". CNN. March 17, 2003. Archived from the original on March 20, 2003.
  7. ^ Jump up to: a b Singh, Arune (March 21, 2003). "MAX Muscle: Austen talks 'War Machine 2.0' & 'The Eternal' & 'World Watch'". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on July 2, 2003.
  8. ^ Constantine, Percival (April 16, 2013). "X-Men: 5 Best and 5 Worst Writers". WhatCulture!. Archived from the original on April 19, 2013.
  9. ^ Jump up to: a b c Sims, Chris (January 13, 2012). "Ask Chris #89: The Rise and Fall of Chuck Austen". ComicsAlliance. Archived from the original on January 15, 2012.
  10. ^ Jump up to: a b Dunman, Jacob (June 14, 2010). "Top 5: Chuck Austen X-Men Moments". Comicdom Wrecks. Archived from the original on April 14, 2011.
  11. ^ "'Graphic' Novels: 10 Shocking Superhero Hookups". Newsarama. September 21, 2011. Archived from the original on September 24, 2011.
  12. ^ Cornwell, Jason (June 11, 2003). "Uncanny X-Men #424". Silver Bullet Comics. Archived from the original on June 29, 2003.
  13. ^ Austen, Chuck (w). Uncanny X-Men #414. Marvel Comics (New York)
  14. ^ Austen, Chuck (w). Uncanny X-Men #417. Marvel Comics (New York)
  15. ^ Austen, Chuck (w). Uncanny X-Men #412. Marvel Comics (New York).
  16. ^ Austen, Chuck (w). Uncanny X-Men #415. Marvel Comics (New York)
  17. ^ Austen, Chuck (w). Uncanny X-Men #412. Marvel Comics (New York).
  18. ^ Austen, Chuck (w). Uncanny X-Men #410. Marvel Comics (New York).
  19. ^ Austen, Chuck (w). Uncanny X-Men #416. Marvel Comics (New York)
  20. ^ Austen, Chuck (w). Uncanny X-Men #427. Marvel Comics (New York)
  21. ^ Brice, Jason (July 2, 2004). "Chuck Austen Leaves Xavier's School For Gifted Youngsters". Silver Bullet Comics. Archived from the original on August 13, 2004.
  22. ^ Moreels, Eric (July 9, 2004). "Post MARVEL-OUS X-IT: THE CHUCK AUSTEN INTERVIEW". ComiX-Fan Forums. Archived from the original on November 19, 2004.
  23. ^ Austen, Chuck (w). New X-Men #155-156. Marvel Comics (New York)
  24. ^ Austen, Chuck (w). X-Men #157. Marvel Comics (New York)
  25. ^ Austen, Chuck (w). X-Men #160-163. Marvel Comics (New York)
  26. ^ Aronson, Michael (November 15, 2006). "Uncanny X-Men v1: Hope". Silver Bullet Comics. Archived from the original on November 30, 2006.
  27. ^ Jensen, Thor (November 11, 2010). "The Dirtiest Comic Book Sex Scenes". UGO Entertainment. Archived from the original on November 14, 2010.
  28. ^ Brady, Matt (December 19, 2002). "RIEBER OFF CAP, AUSTEN ON". Newsarama. Archived from the original on February 23, 2003.
  29. ^ Austen, Chuck (w). The Avengers #78. Marvel Comics (New York)
  30. ^ Austen, Chuck (w). The Avengers #83-85. Marvel Comics (New York).
  31. ^ Austen, Chuck (w). Invaders #0. Marvel Comics (New York).
  32. ^ Ong Pang Kean, Benjamin (March 28, 2004). "WATCHING AUSTEN'S WORLD". Newsarama. Archived from the original on April 2, 2004.
  33. ^ Singh, Arune (May 2, 2002). "A 'CALL' TO ARMS: BRUCE JONES DISCUSSES 'THE PRECINCT'". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on September 12, 2002.
  34. ^ De Blieck, Augie (July 30, 2013). "Pipeline: Revisiting Steve Uy's "Eden's Trail" and "Feather"". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on August 19, 2013.
  35. ^ Ong Pang Kean, Benjamin (June 21, 2004). "WATCHING AUSTEN'S WORLD". Newsarama. Archived from the original on June 22, 2004.
  36. ^ Jump up to: a b c Ong Pang Kean, Benjamin (July 10, 2008). "Whatever Happened to Austen's Boys of Summer?". Newsarama. Archived from the original on August 30, 2008.
  37. ^ Cha, Kai-Ming (December 19, 2006). "Top Ten Manga and Manhwa for 2006". Publishers Weekly. Archived from the original on January 14, 2007.
  38. ^ Stout, Tim (April 6, 2011). "Q&A with Chuck Austen – Wild and Wooly Press". Archived from the original on February 1, 2012.
  39. ^ Austen, Chuck. "My Books - Charles Olen Austen". Archived from the original on August 10, 2021.
  40. ^ Averdon, Jon (September 10, 2020). "Edgeworld: Chuck Austen and Patrick Olliffe Team Up for Sci-Fi Western comiXology Original". CBR.com. Archived from the original on August 10, 2021.
  41. ^ Jump up to: a b Naso, Markisan; O'Shea, Tim (April 8, 2004). "Chuck Austen: Lionheart". Silver Bullet Comics. Archived from the original on May 8, 2004.
  42. ^ Jump up to: a b Contino, Jennifer (August 17, 2003). "CHUCK AUSTEN, THE LAST INTERVIEW". COMICON.com. Archived from the original on May 27, 2006.

External links[]

Preceded by
Joe Casey 		Uncanny X-Men writer
2002–2004 		Succeeded by
Chris Claremont
Preceded by
Grant Morrison 		X-Men (vol. 2) writer
2004–2005 		Succeeded by
Peter Milligan
Preceded by
John Ney Rieber 		Captain America writer
2003 		Succeeded by
Dave Gibbons
Preceded by
Geoff Johns 		The Avengers writer
2004 		Succeeded by
Brian Michael Bendis
Retrieved from ""