Gudimallam Lingam

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Shiva standing on an apasmara, carved on the lingam in Gudimallam. Dates range from the 3rd century BC to the 4th century AD.

The Gudimallam Lingam is an ancient linga in the Parasurameswara Swamy Temple of Gudimallam, a small village in the Yerpedu mandal of the Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh, India.[1] It is ten kilometers (six miles) north-east of Renigunta Railway Junction, not far from Tirupati.[2]

Though Gudimallam is a small village, it is well-known because it has a very early linga that is anatomically phallic in shape, with a full-length standing relief figure of Lakulisa, the ascetic manifestation of Shiva, on the front. Lakulisa as an ascetic manifestation of Shiva is seen in later peninsular Indian sculpture whose ithyphallic aspects connotes asceticism and conserved procreative potentialities (Brahmacarya or celibacy), rather than mere eroticism.[3][4] This is in the garbhagriha of the Parasurameswara Temple, Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva.[5] This is perhaps the second earliest linga associated with Shiva discovered so far,[6] and it has been dated to the 2nd/1st century BC,[7] or the 3rd century BC,[5] or much later, to the 2nd century AD,[8] 3-4th century AD,[8] or even, according to one source, as late as the 7th century AD.[9] According to Harle, this is "the only sculpture of any importance" to survive from ancient South India before sculpture made under the Pallava dynasty from the 7th century AD onwards, and "its mysteriousness lies in the total absence so far of any object in an even remotely similar manner within many hundreds of miles, and indeed anywhere in South India".[10] If assigned an early date, the figure on the linga is "one of the earliest surviving and unequivocal images of the god Shiva".[11]

Gudimallam lingam: front, rear & side elevations, with sectional plan.

The temple is later than the linga; again, estimates of its age vary considerably, but the existing building is usually dated to "the later Chola and Vijayanagara periods", so possibly a thousand years later than the sculpture; it seems to have replaced much earlier structures. The linga was possibly originally sited in the open air, with the rectangular stone surround that still remains,[12] or inside a wooden structure. The temple remains in worship, but has been protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) since 1954.

Description[]

Gudimallam statue details

The linga first came to academic attention, by his own account, after being surveyed by the archaeologist T. A. Gopinatha Rao (then working for the local princely state, later with the ASI), "some years" before he published it in 1911.[13] The linga is carved out of a hard dark brown local stone. It is over 5 ft high and slightly above a foot in diameter on the main shaft. Rao gives the height as 5 foot exactly, but did not see the full length, as the bottom of the linga was then buried in the floor. The glans penis is clearly differentiated from the shaft by being wider, with a deep slanting groove cut about a foot from the top of the Linga.[14] Unusually, the garbhagriha is apsidal or semi-circular, curving behind the linga.

An image of Shiva in sthanaka posture is carved in high relief. On the front portion of the linga the god is standing on the shoulders of a figure of Apasmara, a dwarf who represents spiritual ignorance.[14] The figure of Shiva resembles a vigorous hunter; He holds a ram or antelope in his right hand and a small water pot in his left hand.[15] There is a battle axe (parasu) resting on his left shoulder. He wears a number of heavy earrings in his ears, an elaborate flat necklace, and a girdle with a dangling central portion. His arms are adorned with five bracelets, with different designs in relief, on each wrist, and a high arm-ring on each side. He wears a dhoti of very thin material, fastened at his waist with a vastra-mekhala.[16] This extends round the whole shaft of the linga.[5] He has no yagnopavita or sacred thread. Emerging from a complicated turban-like head-covering, his hair is long and plaited (not matted).[17]

His features are described by Rao as Mongoloid,[18] and Blurton describes the figure as not having "the features associated with gods of orthodox Hinduism" but "squat and broadly-built, and with the thick curly hair and the pronounced lips still seen amongst tribal populations in Central India", suggesting the non-Vedic aspects being absorbed into the emerging figure of Shiva.[19]

Rao's account emphasizes that the linga here is unmistakably a representation of an erect human penis, as therefore are other Shiva lingas,[20] this point having apparently been disputed, or over-generalized,[21] by some previously. He describes it as "shaped exactly like the original model, in a state of erection",[22] though one of his illustrations shows the "plan" section of the shaft, with seven straight-line faces, and gives their unequal lengths. The sharpest angle made by these faces would run through the centre of the Shiva figure, and the front face of the linga is made of the two longest faces (at 6 inches). Two side faces of 4 inches are at right angles to the figure, and the rear of the shaft has one central longer face at right angles to the sides, and two shorter ones joining the back and sides.[23]

Plan and elevation of the temple

Though the linga has remained in worship in the temple built around it, its relationship to the sanctuary and setting has been altered since Rao's time. The photograph in Rao's 1916 book,[24] like the one at the top of the article, shows the linga set into the floor, which comes at about the level of the dwarf's midriff. More recent photos and videos, presumably taken after an ASI exploration in 1973-74,[25] show the lingam in a square stone enclosure on the floor, with the whole length of the dwarf (who is kneeling) visible, as well as a circular pediment.[26]

The stone slabs making the enclosure are plain on the outside, but carved on the inside as stone railings (with three horizontal rails) in a pattern comparable to those of ancient Buddhist stupas such as Sanchi (but much smaller).[27] Rao was unaware of this structure, then below the floor, saying "the pedestal is cut out in the form of a quadrangular ridge on the ground",[18] this ridge in fact being the top of the uppermost rail of the railings. Whether the rest of the floor was lowered or the linga and railings raised is unclear; the sanctuary floor is now a few steps below the main floor level of the temple, an unusual feature which Rao's plan of the temple from 1911 shows, but does not give measurements for. The linga also has a modern golden metal frame, topped by a naga head, behind it.[28]

Gudimallam Temple

Sources disagree about the expression and connotations of the "dwarf" below Shiva. To Rao he is "jolly and happy, as is evidenced by the broad grin on his face".[16] He has "pointed animal ears".[16] For Elgood, he is a "yaksha with fish-shaped feet and conch-shaped ears", so a spirit connected with water, matching the water pot held by Shiva (Rao would never have seen these feet).[29] Shiva conventionally stands on such a figure in much later depictions of him as Nataraja ("Lord of the Dance"), where the figure is usually said to represent "ignorance",[30] but in the earliest Indian stone monumental sculpture, figures often stand on dwarfish figures, as with (for example) the Bhutesvara Yakshis (Buddhist, 2nd century AD), where these figures also seem rather cheerful.

Karthikeya Sharma, who conducted the ASI excavations, states that the Gudimallam Linga combines several later aspects of Siva; for example, the God's eyes focusing on the tip of his nose indicates the Virupaksha and Yoga-Dakshinamurthy aspects of later years. The holding of a ram in his right hand indicates the Bhikshatanamurthi aspect of Siva.

Context[]

The phallus representation that points up, illustrates the centrality of the energetic principle of Urdhva Retas (Sanskrit: ऊर्ध्वरेतस् IAST: Ūrdhvaretas, lit. "ascent of vital energies or fluid") practice of celibacy (Brahmacarya)[31] and the upward flow of energy in spiritual pursuits, contrary to fertility or release of vital energies.[32][33][34][35] The visual convention of Gudimallam lingam is rendering the concept of ūrdhva retas or the ascent of the semen.[32][33] Controlling of the vital fluid, the seminal fluid, is thought to entain control of all passions and the achievement of desirelessness.[32][33] Shiva stands on top of a Apasmara (demon) dwarf, who symbolizes spiritual ignorance, greed, lust or Kama and nonsensical speech on the spiritual path, hence must be subdued in spiritual pursuits.[36][37][38] The control of the vital fluid within the body through the practice of Asceticism and Yogic Sadhana, leads to supreme mystical cognition or samādhi.[32][39] The Urdhvalinga (IAST: ūrdhvaliṅga), pointing upward, conveys not only the retention of the seed once "stirred" but its upward condition, "through the spinal cord to the brain", retaining its integrity as 'creative substance', while being transformed and absorbed mentally as Bodhicitta, the "thought of Awakening".[40][41] The symbol of the ascent and transmutation of vital energy (sexual energy) into mental power, a channeling of the procreative into creative faculty, is artistically seen as tantric realization in Mukhalinga or "face-linga", the two overlapping components forming a visual unity, states Kramrisch.[note 1][40]

According to Stella Kramrisch, this would seem to underlie the pictorial symbol of the Gudimallam lingam, which should not be mistaken for fertility or sexuality due to incomplete or impure understanding of the underlying refined principles.[32][33] According to Swami Sivananda, in the path of Brahmacarya, it is important for one to eliminate lust, but not suppress it.[43] One cannot be free which is suppressed, because, suppression will manifest with redoubled force when a suitable opportunity arises, when one will becomes weak, when there is slackening in meditation or yogic sadhana.[43] According to K.V Anantharaman, the Shiva gita states that, it is through the mastery of sexual energies or sexuality that one become powerful, both in physical and mental sphere.[44] Those who do not recognize the divine nature, upward flow of energy, are bound to fail in their attempts at physical and spiritual achievement, states Anantharaman.[44] The ithyphallic representation of the erect shape connotes the very opposite in this context.[45] It stands for "seminal retention", and represents Shiva as "he stands for the complete control of the senses, and for the supreme carnal renunciation".[45] In the path of Brahmacarya, Asceticism or, Sannyasa, the Yogi does not deny sex, rather transforms sexual urges and directs it away from procreation and pleasure towards intuited wisdom, towards freedom and bliss.[45]

History of the temple and site[]

The main shrine is apsidal, with the outer wall inscribed in different scripts. These inscriptions describe donations to the temple over the centuries. The temple shows evidence of various reconstructions and expansions.

The name of the temple is mentioned as Parasurameswara Temple in the inscriptions. These inscriptions do not refer to the original builders of the temple. But they register the gifts made to the temple like land, money and cows for the conduct of daily worship in the temple. Black and Redware sherds of the 2nd or 3rd century AD have been brought to light during the course of excavations conducted in 1973. Potsherds of the Andhra Satavahana period (Circa 1st century AD to 2nd century AD) and large sized bricks measuring 42x21x6 inches of the same period have also been found. Hence some historians assign the temple to the Satavahana period.[citation needed]

The sanctum of the Parasurameswara Swamy temple has a square plan embedded in an apsidal structure. According to Himanshu Ray, this apsidal design attests to a more ancient temple architecture made of perishable materials. The later restorations rebuilt on the earlier design.[46]

Historians disagree about the political history and the name of this place. There are several inscriptions which date to the Pallava, Yadava Devarayalu, Ganga Pallava, Bana and Chola periods on the walls of the shrine and on stone slabs in the temple courtyard. The earliest inscription belongs to the reign of Nandivarma Pallava (802 AD). All the inscriptions mention the keen interest taken by the donors and their gifts to the Temple. However, none of the inscriptions give the village name as Gudimallam.[citation needed]

Comparisons for the lingam[]

Some of the copper coins obtained at Ujjain and belonging to the 3rd century BC contain figures which resemble the Linga of Gudimallam. A 1st century sculpture in the Mathura Museum also contains a figure resembling the Gudimallam Shiva. J.N. Benerjee in his work Religion in art and archaeology observes:

The Lingam in Arghya motif was comparatively late phase. In the course of its conventionalisation and development, the Arghya was supposed to symbolise the female part and it was described, in many late texts of a tantric character. But originally in comparatively early times, the emblems of the male and the female deities were worshiped separately, as the earliest specimens of the phallus and ring stone testify. The Gudimallam Shiva Linga or for that matter the Shivalingas of the Pre-Gupta and the early Gupta periods did not show any real base in the shape of the latter characterization of the arghya or pita. Even in latter representations of the emblem, the projecting section of the Pita really served the very useful purpose of draining off the water profusely poured on the top of the Shiva Linga to some distance from its base. This statement needs revision, for it is evident from the recent excavations conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India, South eastern Circle of Hyderabad, clearly revealed that Gudimallam Linga was originally provided with a pedestal.

Gallery[]

Notes[]

  1. ^ "Archaeological Survey of India - Alphabetical List of Monuments in Andhra Pradesh". Government of India.
  2. ^ Rao, 65
  3. ^ Srinivasan 2004, p. 434.
  4. ^ O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. "Asceticism and Sexuality in the Mythology of Śiva. Part I." History of Religions 8, no. 4 (1969): 300-37. Accessed September 7, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1062019.
  5. ^ Jump up to: a b c Doniger, Wendy (2009). The Hindus: An Alternative History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 22,23. ISBN 9780199593347.
  6. ^ Rao, 63-64. Much older phalluses in clay etc are known (See Ellgood, 46).
  7. ^ Harle, 271; Blurton, 78; Elgood, 47 says from end BC to 1st AD
  8. ^ Jump up to: a b Pieris, Sita; Raven, Ellen (2010). ABIA: South and Southeast Asian Art and Archaeology Index: Volume Three – South Asia. BRILL. p. 264. ISBN 978-90-04-19148-8.
  9. ^ Arundhati, P. (2002). Annapurna : A Bunch Of Flowers Of Indian Culture. Concept Publishing Company. p. 43. ISBN 978-81-7022-897-4.
  10. ^ Harle, 271
  11. ^ Blurton, 82
  12. ^ Blurton, 78-81 (78 quoted)
  13. ^ First published in April 1911 with a paper by Rao, in Indian Antiquary, volume XL, pages 104–105 (edited by Richard Temple, Cambridge, British India Press), then in his 1916 book, Rao, 65
  14. ^ Jump up to: a b Rao, 65-67
  15. ^ Rao, 66 calls it a ram, Blurton, 78 also suggests an antelope. Other sources mention a goat.
  16. ^ Jump up to: a b c Rao, 67
  17. ^ Rao, 66-67
  18. ^ Jump up to: a b Rao, 66
  19. ^ Blurton, 81; Elgood, 47 "with full lips and thick, curly hair".
  20. ^ Rao, 68-69
  21. ^ Elgood, 46
  22. ^ Rao, 68
  23. ^ Rao, "Plate II (to face page 66)"
  24. ^ Rao, Plate II, after p. 66
  25. ^ ASI "Since Independence – Andhra Pradesh"
  26. ^ Harle, 271 and Arundhati, 41, for examples
  27. ^ Blurton, 81
  28. ^ Hidden Temples.com, "Gudimallam Temple Abhishekam", showing the linga in worship.
  29. ^ Elgood, 47
  30. ^ Elgood, 49; Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja), Chola period, c. 10th/11th century The Art Institute of Chicago, United States
  31. ^ Ghurye, G.S. (1952). Ascetic Origins. Sociological Bulletin, 1(2). p. 162-184. doi:10.1177/0038022919520206.
  32. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kramrisch 1994, p. 26.
  33. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Swami Agehananda Bharati (1970). The Tantric Tradition. Red Wheel/Weiser. p. 294. ISBN 0877282536.
  34. ^ "Urdhvaretas, Urdhvaretās, Ūrdhvaretas, Urdhva-retas: 7 definitions". www.wisdomlib.org.
  35. ^ Devdutt Pattanaik (2018). Shiva to Shankara: Giving Form to the Formless. HarperCollins. pp. 13–14. ISBN 9789352641956.
  36. ^ T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1997). Elements of Hindu Iconography. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 223–229, 237. ISBN 978-81-208-0877-5.
  37. ^ Shiva as Lord of the Dance (Nataraja), Chola period, c. 10th/11th century The Art Institute of Chicago, United States
  38. ^ P. Arundhati (2002). Annapurna : A Bunch of Flowers of Indian Culture. Concept. pp. 40–45. ISBN 978-81-7022-897-4.
  39. ^ Pensa, Corrado (1972). "Problems and Methods of the History of Religions". Some Internal and Comparative Problems in the Field of Indian Religions. Brill. p. 102-122. doi:10.1163/9789004378100_008.
  40. ^ Jump up to: a b Kramrisch 1994, p. 238.
  41. ^ Pattanaik, Devdutt. Shiva to Shankara: Decoding the phallic symbol. Indus Source, 2006, p. 39
  42. ^ Kramrisch 1994, p. 555.
  43. ^ Jump up to: a b Sri Swami Sivananda (1934). Practice of Brahmacharya. A Divine Life Society Publication. ISBN 81-7052-067-3.
  44. ^ Jump up to: a b K.V, Anantharaman. "Chapter X - Omnipotence of Siva Linga". Siva Gita A Critical Study.
  45. ^ Jump up to: a b c Kramrisch 1994, p. 218.
  46. ^ Himanshu Prabha Ray (2004). "The Apsidal Shrine in Early Hinduism: Origins, Cultic Affiliation, Patronage". World Archaeology. 36 (3 - The Archaeology of Hinduism September 2004): 343–59.

References[]

  1. ^ Furthermore, the phallic shape, standing erect, always negates its function as an organ of procreation. Rather, the shape or pictorial representation is conveying that, the seed was channeled upward, not ejected for the sake of generation, but was reversed, retained and absorbed for regeneration as creative energy.[42]
  • Blurton, T. Richard, Hindu Art, 1994, British Museum Press, ISBN 0 7141 1442 1
  • Elgood, Heather, Hinduism and the Religious Arts, 2000, Bloomsbury Publishing, ISBN 0826498655, 9780826498656, google books
  • Harle, J. C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press. (Pelican History of Art), ISBN 0300062176
  • Rao, T. A. Gopinatha, Elements Of Hindu Iconography, Vol II Part 1, 1914, Law Printing House, Madras (Chennai), Internet Archive (fully online), p. 65 on
* Kramrisch, Stella (1994). The Presence of Śiva. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691019307.

Further reading[]

  • Sarma, Inguva Karthikeya, Paraśurāmēśvara Temple at Gudimallam: A probe into its origins, 1994, Gattsons, ISBN 9788171920150

External links[]

Coordinates: 13°36′12″N 79°34′36″E / 13.603425°N 79.576767°E / 13.603425; 79.576767

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