Indo-European sound laws
As the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) broke up, its sound system diverged as well, as evidenced in various sound laws associated with the daughter Indo-European languages.
Especially notable is the palatalization that produced the satem languages, along with the associated ruki sound law. Other notable changes include:
- Grimm's law and Verner's law in Proto-Germanic
- an independent change similar to Grimm's law in Armenian
- loss of prevocalic *p- in Proto-Celtic
- Brugmann's law in Proto-Indo-Iranian
- Winter's law and Hirt's law in Balto-Slavic
- merging of voiced and breathy-voiced stops, and /a/ and /o/, in various "northern" languages
Bartholomae's law in Indo-Iranian, and Sievers's law in Proto-Germanic and (to some extent) various other branches, may or may not have been common Indo-European features. A number of innovations, both phonological and morphological, represent areal features common to the Italic and Celtic languages; among them the development of labiovelars to labial consonants in some Italic and Celtic branches, producing "p-Celtic" and "q-Celtic" languages (likewise "p-Italic" and "q-Italic", although these terms are less used). Another grouping with many shared areal innovations comprises Greek, Indo-Iranian, and Armenian; among its common phonological innovations are Grassmann's law in Greek and Indo-Iranian, and weakening of pre-vocalic /s/ to /h/ in Greek, Iranian and Armenian.
Consonants[]
The following table shows the Proto-Indo-European consonants and their reflexes in selected Indo-European daughter languages. Background and further details can be found in various related articles, including Proto-Indo-European phonology, Centum and satem languages, the articles on the various sound laws referred to in the introduction, and the articles on the various IE proto-languages, language groups and language phonologies. For development of the laryngeals and syllabic consonants, see the vowels table below.
PIE | Indo-Iranian | Balto-Slavic | Alb. | Arm. | Anatol. | Toch. | Greek | Italic | Celtic | Germanic | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Hitt. | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English | |||||||
normal | C+[j] | normal | -C- [C 1] | ||||||||||||
*p | p; ph [pʰ] [C 2] | p; f [C 3] | p | h; w [C 4] |
p, pp | p | pt | p | ∅ | f; b [β] [C 5] |
f; v, f[C 1] | ||||
*t | t; th [t̪ʰ] [C 2] | t; θ[C 3] | t | tʿ [tʰ] | t, tt; z [ts] [C 6] |
t; c [c] [C 6] |
t | s; tt/ss[C 4] | t | t | th [θ] | þ [θ]; d [ð]; [C 5] |
th; d; [C 5] | ||
*ḱ | ś [ɕ] | s | š [ʃ] | th [θ]; k[C 7] |
s | k, kk | k; ś [ɕ][C 7] |
k | c [k] | c [k] | ch [x] | h; g [ɣ] [C 5] |
h; ∅;[C 1] y [C 5] | ||
*k | k; c [t͡ɕ]; [C 6] kh [kʰ] [C 2] |
k; c [tʃ]; [C 6] x[C 3] |
k; č [tʃ]; [C 6] c [ts][C 8] |
k | k | kʿ [kʰ] | |||||||||
*kʷ | k; s; [C 6] q [c][C 8] |
ku, kku | p; t; [C 6] k[C 9] |
qu [kʷ]; c [k] [C 10] |
ƕ [ʍ]; gw, w [C 5] |
wh; w [C 5] | |||||||||
*b | b; bh [C 2] | b; β [C 11] | b | p | b | pt | b | b [b] | -[β]- | p | |||||
*d | d; dh [C 2] | d; δ [C 11] | d | d; dh [ð][C 1] |
t | ts; ś [ɕ] [C 6] |
d | z [zd] > [z] | d | d [d] | -[ð]- | t | |||
*ǵ | j [d͡ʑ]; h [ɦ] [C 2] |
z | ž [ʒ] | dh [ð]; g[C 7] |
c [ts] | k | k; ś [ɕ][C 7] |
g | g | g [ɡ] | -[ɣ]- | k | c / k; ch[C 8] | ||
*g | g; j [d͡ʑ]; [C 6] gh; [C 2] h [ɦ] [C 2] |
g; j [dʒ]; [C 6] γ [C 11] |
g; ž [ʒ]; [C 6] dz[C 8] |
g | g | k | |||||||||
*gʷ | g; z; [C 6] gj [ɟ][C 8] |
ku | b; d; [C 6] g[C 9] |
u [w > v]; gu [ɡʷ] [C 12] |
b [b] | -[β]- | q [kʷ] | qu | |||||||
*bʰ | bh [bʱ] | b; β [C 11] | b | b; w[C 1] |
p | ph [pʰ] | pt | f;[C 13] b |
b [b]; b [β];[C 1] f [C 14] |
b; v / f[C 15] | |||||
*dʰ | dh [dʱ] | d; δ [C 11] | d | t | t; c [c] [C 6] |
th [tʰ] | tt/ss | f;[C 13] d; b [C 16] |
d [d] | -[ð]- | d; d [ð];[C 1] þ [C 14] |
d | |||
*ǵʰ | h [ɦ] | z | ž [ʒ] | dh [ð]; d[C 7] |
j [dz]; z[C 1] |
k | k; ś [ɕ] [C 6] |
kh [kʰ] | h; h / g[C 7] |
g [ɡ] | -[ɣ]- | g; g [ɣ];[C 1] g [x] [C 14] |
g; y / w[C 15] | ||
*gʰ | gh [ɡʱ]; h [ɦ] [C 6] |
g; j [dʒ]; [C 6] γ [C 11] |
g; ž [ʒ]; [C 6] dz[C 8] |
g | g | g; ǰ [dʒ] [C 6] | |||||||||
*gʷʰ | g; z; [C 6] gj [ɟ][C 8] |
ku | ph [pʰ]; th [tʰ]; [C 6] kh [kʰ][C 9] |
f;[C 13] g / u [w];[C 1] gu [ɡʷ] [C 12] |
g; b;[C 13] w;[C 1] gw [C 12] |
g; b;[C 13] w[C 1] | |||||||||
*s | s | h [h, x] | s | sh [ʃ]; gj [ɟ];[C 17] h[C 1] |
h; ∅[C 1] |
š [s] | s; ṣ [ʂ] |
h;[C 13] s;[C 18][C 14]/ ∅;[C 1] [¯] [C 19] |
i | s; r[C 1] |
s ʃ | -[h]- | s; z [C 5] |
s; r [C 5] | |
ṣ [ʂ][C 20] | š [ʃ][C 20] | x [x][C 20] | š [ʃ][C 20] | ||||||||||||
*m | m | in | m | m [m] | -[w̃]- | m | |||||||||
*-m [C 14] | m | ˛ [˜] | n | ∅ | n | n | -- | m [˜] | n | ∅ | |||||
*n | n | n; ˛ [˜] [C 14] |
n | n; ñ [ɲ] |
n | in | n | ||||||||
*l | r (dial. l) | r | l | l; ll [ɫ][C 1] |
l / ɫ [ɫ > ɣ] |
l | il | l | |||||||
*r | r | r [ɾ]; rr [r][C 1] |
r | ir | r | ||||||||||
*y | y [j] | j [j] | gj [ɟ]; ∅ |
∅ | y [j] | z [zd] > [z] / h; ∅ [C 1] |
?i | i [j]; ∅ [C 1] |
∅ | j | y | ||||
*w | v [ʋ] | v [w] | v | v [ʋ] | v | g / w | w | w > h / ∅ | i | u [w > v] | f | -∅- | w | ||
PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Alb. | Arm. | Hitt. | Toch. | Greek | Greek+/j/ | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English |
Notes for table 1:
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Between vowels
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Before an original h₂.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
- ^ Jump up to: a b After a vowel.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Following an unstressed vowel (Verner's law).
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Before a (PIE) front vowel (*i, *e).
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Before a sonorant.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Before or after a (PIE) u
- ^ Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel (*u, *o).
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f In Younger Avestan, after a vowel.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c After n.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f At the beginning of a word
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f At the end of a word.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)
- ^ After u, r or before r, l.
- ^ Before a stressed vowel
- ^ Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)
- ^ Before or after a resonant (r, l, m, n).
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
Consonant clusters[]
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous consonant clusters, such as *st, *ḱs. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):
This section needs expansion with: thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law. You can help by . (August 2016) |
PIE | Indo-Iranian | Balto-Slavic | Alb. | Arm. | Anatol. | Toch. | Greek | Italic | Celtic | Germanic | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Hitt. | Latin | Old Irish | Gothic | English | ||||||
normal | C+[j] | |||||||||||||
*sr | sr | r | str | sr | rr [r] | (a)r | š(ša)r ʃʃr | rh | n/a | fr-, -br- | sr | str | str | |
*tw | tv | θβ | tv | tv | t | kʿ [kʰ] | ttu, ddu | s-, -ss- | n/a | p? | t | þw | thw | |
*dʰw | dhv | ðβ | dv | dv | d | ? | tu, du | f | d | dw | dw | |||
*dw | dv | (e)rk | tu, du | b | tw | tw | ||||||||
*ḱw | śv | sp | sv | šv | s | sk, š | n/a | qu [kʷ] | cu [kʷ] | ƕ [xʷ] | wh | |||
*ǵʰw | hv | zv | žv | z | ||||||||||
*ǵw | jv | q [kʷ] | qu [kw] | |||||||||||
*sw | sv | xuu [xʷ] | sv | sv | v | kʿ [kʰ] | normal dev. | h | n/a | su [sw] | s | sw | sw | |
*sp | sp | sp [CC 1] | sp | f | sp [CC 1] / pʿ [pʰ] |
normal dev. | sp [CC 1] | ? | sp | f | sp [CC 2] | |||
*st | st | st [CC 1] | st | sht [ʃt] | st [CC 1] | normal dev. | st [CC 1] | s; tt/ss[CC 3] | st | st [CC 2] | ||||
*sḱ | ch [t͡ɕʰ]; cch[CC 3] | s? | sk | š? | h | ?? č`; c`[CC 3] | normal dev. | sk; [CC 1] kh [kʰ];[CC 4] skh [skʰ] [CC 5] |
sc [sk] | sc [sk] | sk [CC 2] | sh [ʃ] | ||
*sk | sk, sc | sk, sč [CC 1] | normal dev. | ? | sk [CC 1] | normal dev. | ||||||||
*skʷ | norm. | squ [skʷ] | sq [CC 2] | |||||||||||
*t+t [tst] | tt; tth [CC 6] | st; sθ[CC 7]? | st | s | s? | zt, zzašt, zzazz [tst] | ss? | st | ss | ss / st | ||||
*pt | pt | ft | t? | pt | t | pt | pt | cht [xt] | ft [CC 2] | |||||
*ḱt | ṣṭ [ʂʈ] | št [ʃt] | st | št [ʃt] | kt | ct [kt] | ht [CC 2] | ght [t] [CC 2] | ||||||
*kt | kt | xt | t? | kt | ||||||||||
*kʷt | pt | ct [kt] | ||||||||||||
*ps | ps | ps | s, ss | fs | ps | |||||||||
*ḱs | kṣ | š | sh [ʃ] | ks | x [ks] | hs | x [ks] | |||||||
*ks | kṣ[CC 8] | xš[CC 8] | (ks) | |||||||||||
*kʷs | kʷs | ps | x [ks] | |||||||||||
*sd | ḍ | zd | zd | zd | st | d | -t- [d] | st | st | |||||
*sdʰ | ḍh | zd | zd | zd | Show side | sth | -t- [d] | zd | d |
Notes to Table 2:
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i In contrast to *s normally giving h in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Germanic spirant law: *p, *t, *k, *kʷ remain stops when preceded by another stop or *s.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Between vowels.
- ^ After r, l, m, n, t, d, possibly other consonants?
- ^ After (Greek) th causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō).[clarification needed]
- ^ Before an original laryngeal.
- ^ Before a consonant or original laryngeal.
- ^ Jump up to: a b After r, u, k, i (Ruki sound law).
Vowels and syllabic consonants[]
This table shows the Proto-Indo-European vowels and syllabic consonants (as reconstructed both before and after the acceptance of laryngeal theory), and their reflexes in selected Indo-European daughter languages. Background and further details can be found in various related articles, including Proto-Indo-European phonology, the articles on the various sound laws referred to in the introduction, and the articles on the various IE proto-languages, language groups and language phonologies.
Trad. PIE | Laryng. PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Arm. | Alb. | Toch. | Hitt. | Greek | Latin[V 1] | Proto-Celtic | Gothic[V 2] | Old English[V 1] | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
normal | umlauted[V 3] | ||||||||||||||
*e | *e, *h₁e | a | e | je, ie, e, i; ja[V 4] | ä | e, ʔe, i | e | i; aí [ɛ][V 5] | e; eo[V 6] | i; ie[V 6] | |||||
*a | (*a[V 7]), *h₂e | o | a | a | ha, a | ā | ha, a | a | a | æ; a;[V 8] ea[V 6] | e; ie[V 6] | ||||
*o | *h₃e | o, a | a | a, e | a | o | |||||||||
*o | a; ā[V 9] | ||||||||||||||
*ə[V 10] | *h₁[V 10] | i | i, ∅ | ∅ | a, ∅ | ā | ∅ | e | a | a, ∅ | |||||
*h₂[V 10] | ḫ | a | |||||||||||||
*h₃[V 10] | ∅ | o | |||||||||||||
*- | *h₁-[V 11] | ∅ | e (a?) | ∅ | a, ∅ | e (o) | ∅ | ||||||||
*h₂-[V 11] | a | ḫa | a | ||||||||||||
*h₃-[V 11] | a, ha | o | |||||||||||||
*ē | *ē, *eh₁ | ā | ě | ė | i | o, ua | a/e?; ā?[V 12] | ē, e, i | ē | ī | ē | ǣ | |||
*ā | (*ā[V 7]), *eh₂ | a | o [oː] | a | a/o? | a, ah | ā > ē[V 13] | ā | ā | ō | ē | ||||
*ō | *ō, *eh₃ | uo | u | e | a/ā?; ū?[V 12] | a, ā | ō | ā; ū[V 12] | |||||||
*i | *i | i | ь | i | i | i; e[V 14] | ä | i, ī | i | i; aí [ɛ][V 5] | i | ||||
*ī | *ih₁ | ī | i | y [iː] | i | i | ī | ī | ei [iː] | ī | |||||
*ih₂ | i or (j)a?[V 15] |
yā | ī or (j)ā?[V 15] | ||||||||||||
*ih₃ | ī or (j)ō?[V 15] | ||||||||||||||
*ei | *ei, *h₁ei | ai > ē | ai > ōi, āi > aē[V 9] |
ei; ie[V 16] | i | e | ē | ei | ī | īa; ē[V 17] | |||||
*oi | *oi, *h₃ei | ě | ai; ie[V 16] | e | e, ai | ē, ai | oi | ū | oe | ái | ā | ǣ | |||
*ai | (*ai[V 7]), *h₂ei | ai | ae | ae | |||||||||||
*ēi | *ēi | ai; ā[V 12] | āi; ā(i)[V 12] | i | i | ē | ēi | ī? | ei [iː] | ī | |||||
*ōi | *ōi (*oei) | y; u[V 12] | ai; ui[V 12] | e, ai | ai | ōi | ō | u[V 12] | ái | ā | ǣ | ||||
*āi | *eh₂ei | ě | ai | āi > ēi[V 13] | ae | ||||||||||
*u | *u | u | ъ | u | u | u; y[V 18] | ä | u | u | u | u; o[V 19] | u; aú [ɔ][V 5] | u; o[V 20] | y | |
*ū | *uh₁ | ū | y | ū | y; i[V 12] | u | ū | ū | ȳ | ||||||
*uh₂ | u or (w)a?[V 15] |
wā | ū or (w)ā?[V 15] | ||||||||||||
*uh₃ | ū or (w)ō?[V 15] | ||||||||||||||
*eu | *eu, *h₁eu | ō | ə̄u; ao[V 9] | ju | iau | oy | e | u | eu | ū | ūa; ō[V 21] | iu | ēo | īe | |
*ou | *ou,*h₃eu | u | au | a | o, au | ou | áu | ēa | |||||||
*au | (*au[V 7]), *h₂eu | aw | au | au | |||||||||||
*ēu | *ēu | āu | u | iau | e | ū? | iu | ēo | |||||||
*ōu | *ōu | a | au | ō | áu | ēa | |||||||||
*m̥ | *m̥ | a | ę | im̃; um̃[V 22] | am | a | äm | a, un | a | em | em, am | um | um | ym | |
*m̥̅ | *mh₁ | ā | ìm; ùm[V 22] | ama | mā | mē | mā | ||||||||
*mh₂ | mā > mē[V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*mh₃ | mō | ||||||||||||||
*m̥m | *m̥m | am | ьm/ъm | im; um[V 22] | am | am | em | am | |||||||
*n̥ | *n̥ | a | ę | iñ; uñ[V 22] | an | än | an | a | en | en, an | un | un | yn | ||
*n̥̄ | *nh₁ | ā | ìn; ùn[V 22] | ana | nā | nē | nā | ||||||||
*nh₂ | nā > nē [V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*nh₃ | nō | ||||||||||||||
*n̥n | *n̥n | an | ьn/ъn | iñ; uñ[V 22] | an | an | en | an | |||||||
*l̥ | *l̥ | ṛ | ərə | lь/lъ | il̃; ul̃[V 22] | al | il, li; ul, lu | äl | al | la | ol | li;[V 23] al | ul | ul; ol[V 20] | yl |
*l̥̄ | *lh₁ | īr; ūr[V 24] | arə | ìl; ùl[V 22] | ala | al | lā | lē | lā | ||||||
*lh₂ | lā > lē[V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*lh₃ | lō | ||||||||||||||
*l̥l | *l̥l | ir; ur[V 24] | ar | ьl/ъl | il; ul[V 22] | al, la | al | el | al | ||||||
*r̥ | *r̥ | ṛ | ərə | rь/rъ | ir̃; ur̃[V 22] | ar | ir, ri; ur, ru | är | ar, ur | ra | or | ri;[V 23] ar | aúr [ɔr] | ur; or[V 20] | yr |
*r̥̄ | *rh₁ | īr; ūr[V 24] | arə | ìr; ùr[V 22] | ara | ra | rā | rē | rā | ||||||
*rh₂ | rā > rē[V 13] | ||||||||||||||
*rh₃ | rō | ||||||||||||||
*r̥r | *r̥r | ir; ur[V 24] | ar | ьr/ъr | ir; ur[V 22] | ar | ar | ar | ar | ||||||
Trad. PIE | Laryng. PIE | Skr. | Av. | O.C.S. | Lith. | Arm. | Alb. | Toch. | Hitt. | Greek | Latin[V 1] | Proto-Celtic | Gothic[V 2] | normal | umlauted[V 3] |
Old English[V 1] |
Notes:
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d In initial syllables only.
- ^ Jump up to: a b In non-final syllables only.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Before i, ī, or /j/ in the next syllable in Proto-Germanic (i-umlaut).
- ^ In a closed syllable.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Before r, h. Gothic, but not other Germanic languages, merges /e/ and /i/.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Before h, w, or before r, l plus a consonant ("breaking").
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d The existence of PIE non-allophonic a is disputed.
- ^ Before a back vowel in the next syllable (a restoration).
- ^ Jump up to: a b c In open syllables (Brugmann's law).
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Between consonants, or at the end of a word after a consonant.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c At the beginning of a word, followed by a consonant.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i In a final syllable.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f ā > ē in Attic and Ionic dialects only.
- ^ Before ā in the following syllable.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f The so-called breaking is disputed (typical examples are *proti-h₃kʷo- > Ved. prátīkam ~ Gk. πρόσωπον; *gʷih₃u̯o- > Ved. jīvá- ~ Arm. keank‘, Gk. ζωός; *duh₂ro- > Ved. dūrá- ~ Arm. erkar, Gk. δηρός)
- ^ Jump up to: a b Under stress.
- ^ Before palatal consonants.
- ^ Before i in the following syllable.
- ^ Before wa.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Before a non-high vowel in the next syllable (a-mutation).
- ^ Before velars and unstressed
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l In the neighbourhood of labiovelars.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Before a stop or m.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d In the neighbourhood of labials.
Examples[]
See the list of Proto-Indo-European roots hosted at Wiktionary.
*p[]
- Vedic Sanskrit: pā́t, pád-
- Avestan: paδa, pāδa
- Old Church Slavonic: pěšĭ, "on foot"
- Lithuanian: pėda, "foot bottom"
- Armenian: otn
- Tocharian: A pe, B pai
- Luwian: pa-da-, pa-ta-
- Ancient Greek: poús, podós
- Latin: pēs, pedis
- Celtiberian: ozas
- Gothic: fotus (*p -> f by Grimm's Law)
*t[]
- Vedic Sanskrit: tráyas
- Avestan: θrāiiō
- Old Church Slavonic: trĭje
- Lithuanian: trỹs
- Albanian: tre
- Ancient Greek: treĩs
- Latin: trēs
- Old Irish: trí
- Welsh: tri
- Armenian: erekʿ
- Gothic: þreis (*t -> þ by Grimm's Law)
*ḱ[]
*ḱm̥tóm, "hundred" (from earlier *dk̂m̥tóm)[1]
- Vedic Sanskrit: śatám
- Younger Avestan: satəm
- Old Church Slavonic: sŭto
- Lithuanian: šim̃tas
- Tocharian: A känt, B känte
- Ancient Greek: hekatón
- Latin: centum (pronounced kentum)
- Old Irish: cét
- Welsh: cant
- Gothic: hund (from proto-Germanic *xund-)[2]
*k[]
- Vedic Sanskrit: kravís-, "raw meat"
- Lithuanian: kraũjas, "blood"
- Old Church Slavonic: kry, "blood"
- Ancient Greek: kréas, "meat"
- Latin: cruor, "raw blood"
- Old Irish: crú, "blood, gore"
- Old English: hrǣw, "raw"
Sound laws within PIE[]
A few phonological laws can be reconstructed that may have been effective prior to the final breakup of PIE by internal reconstruction.
- Sievers' law (Edgerton's law, Lindeman's option)
- Bartholomae's law
- Szemerényi's law
- Stang's law
- Siebs' law
See also[]
- Centum and satem languages
- Balto-Slavic languages
- Italo-Celtic
- Proto-Indo-Iranian language
- Proto-Iranian
- Proto-Greek language
- Proto-Celtic
- Proto-Germanic
- Proto-Indo-European language
- Proto-Indo-Europeans
- Kurgan hypothesis
- Indo-European languages
- List of Indo-European languages
Further reading[]
- "Voiceless high vowels and syncope in older Indo-European" (PDF). Martin Kummel, department of Indo-European linguistics, University of Jena.
- "Uvular Stops or a Glottal Fricative? Theory and Data in Recent Reconstructions of PIE "Laryngeals"". Martin Kummel, department of Indo-European linguistics, University of Jena.
References[]
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Meier-Brügger, Michael; Gertmenian, Charles (translator) (2003). Indo-European linguistics. Berlin [u.a.]: de Gruyter. pp. 101–131. ISBN 3-11-017433-2.
- ^ Hock, Hans Heinrich (1986). Principles of historical linguistics. Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter. p. 132. ISBN 3-11-010600-0.
- Indo-European linguistics
- Sound laws