Islamic music

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Islamic music may refer to religious music, as performed in Islamic public services or private devotions, or more generally to musical traditions of the Muslim world. The heartland of Islam is the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, West Africa, Iran, Central Asia, and South Asia. Due to Islam being a multi-ethnic religion, the musical expression of its adherents is vastly diverse. Indigenous traditions of various part have influenced the musical styles popular among Muslims today.

Historically, the question of whether music is permitted in Islamic jurisprudence is disputed,^[1] and traditionally it was a common practice of pious Muslims who "enjoined what was good and forbade what was bad" in accordance to Islamic law to destroy musical instruments.^[2]

Secular and folk musical styles[]

Middle East[]

• Arabic music
• Egyptian music
• Iranian music
• Turkish classical music

All of these regions were connected by trade long before the Islamic conquests of the 7th century, and it is likely that musical styles travelled the same routes as trade goods. However, lacking recordings, we can only speculate as to the pre-Islamic music of these areas. Islam must have had a great influence on music, as it united vast areas under the first caliphs, and facilitated trade between distant lands. Certainly, the Sufis, brotherhoods of Muslim mystics, spread their music far and wide.

North Africa[]

The Berber and Arabic speaking countries of North Africa, such as Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, share some musical traditions with Egypt and the Arab countries of the Middle East. Popular modern styles of music such as Raï and Chaabi originated in Berber countries. In addition, West African influences can be heard in the popular music of Gnawa.

• Music of Algeria
• Music of Morocco

Horn of Africa[]

Most Somali music is based on the pentatonic scale. That is, the songs only use five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic (seven note) scale such as the major scale. At first listen, Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as Ethiopia, Sudan or Eritrea, but it is ultimately recognizable by its own unique tunes and styles. Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration between lyricists (midho), songwriters (lahan), and singers ('odka or "voice").^[3] Instruments prominently featured in Somali music include the kaban (oud).

West Africa[]

Islam is the largest and oldest organized religion in this region, although indigenous Sahelian and Saharan styles and genres are more prominent than those influenced by Middle-Eastern theory.

West African musical genres are more varied, and tend to incorporate both native and Berber influences, rather than those of Arab origin. A long history of court griot music based on historical accounts and praise-singing exists in the region. Wind and string instruments, such as the Kora harp, xalam lute, or Tambin flute (similar to the ney) are generally preferred to percussion, although percussion instruments such as the talking drum and djembe are also widely played among Muslim populations

Central Asia[]

Many of the countries in Central Asia such as Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have been heavily influenced by Turkic and Persian culture. Bowed instruments are common, as is bardic singing.

• Music of Central Asia

South Asia[]

The music of the Muslim countries of South Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Maldives and Pakistan) as well as countries with sizeable Muslim minorities (India, Nepal and Sri Lanka) merged Middle Eastern genres with indigenous classical musical modes, and is generally distinct in style and orchestration, yet due to the strong links encountered between the Middle-East, Central Asia, and South Asia, it is closer to Middle-Eastern styles than those of the periphery of the Islamic world, which tend to be purely indigenous.

• Music of Afghanistan
• Music of Bangladesh
• Music of Maldives
• Music of Pakistan

Southeast Asia[]

Muslim-majority Indonesia has been significantly less influenced by Middle Eastern traditions than South Asia. As a result, many local musical styles predate the coming of Islam, although exceptions include Malay Zapin and Joget, and the Indonesian Gambus (derived from Qanbus), all of which show strong Middle Eastern influence.

There are also local music genres in Muslim-majority regions in Southeast Asia that are influenced by Arabian traditions, such as the tagonian of the Sundanese people and glipang of the people of Probolinggo

The music of South East Asia's Muslim-majority regions is more closely related to the musical genres of South East and East Asia. Gong chime ensembles such as Gamelan and Kulintang existed in the region before the arrival of Islam, and musical theory and method owe more to heavy Chinese influence, as well as Hindu–Buddhist principles, than to Arabic musical philosophy. Variations of one of two main scales prevail in the region among different ensembles: slendro and pelog (both of which originated in Java).

In Java, use of the gamelan for Islamic devotional music was encouraged by the Muslim saint Sunan Kalijogo.

Types of Muslim devotional recitation and music[]

Nasheed[]

Nasheeds are moral, religious recitations recited in various melodies by some Muslims of today without any musical instruments. However, some nasheed groups use percussion instruments, such as the daff. Singing moral songs of this type without instrumentation is considered permissible (halal) by many Muslims.

Sufi worship services are often called dhikr or zikr. See that article for further elaboration.

The dhikr of South Asian Muslims is "quietist". The Sufi services best known in the West are the chanting and rhythmic dancing of the whirling dervishes or Mevlevi Sufis of Turkey.

However, Sufis may also perform devotional songs in public, for the enjoyment and edification of listeners. The mood is religious, but the gathering is not a worship service.

In Turkey, once the seat of the Ottoman Empire and the Caliphate, concerts of sacred song are called "Mehfil-e-Sama' " (or "gathering of Sama'"). Song forms include ilahi and nefe.

In South Asia, especially Bangladesh, Pakistan and India, a widely known style of Sufi music is qawwali. A traditional qawwali programme would include:

• A hamd—a song in praise of Allah
• A na`at—a song in praise of Muhammad
• Manqabats—songs in praise of the illustrious teachers of the Sufi brotherhood to which the musicians belong
• Ghazals—songs of intoxication and yearning, which use the language of romantic love to express the soul's longing for union with the divine.

Shi'a qawwali performances typically follow the naat with a manqabat in praise of Ali, and sometimes a marsiya, a lamentation over the death of much of Ali's family at the Battle of Karbala.

The most well-known qawwali singer in modern times is Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan.

Another traditional South Asian genre of Sufi music is the Kafi, which is more meditative and involves solo singing as opposed to the ensemble form seen in qawwali. The most widely known exponent of the Kafi is the Pakistani singer Abida Parveen.

Sufi music has developed with the times. A Pakistani Sufi rock band, Junoon, was formed in the 1990s to bring a modern twist to suit the new younger generation. The band achieved wide popularity, in Pakistan as well as in the West.

Music for public religious celebrations[]

• Ta'zieh music—Ta'zieh is a passion play, part musical drama, part religious drama, rarely performed outside Iran. It depicts the martyrdom of Imam Hussein, venerated by Shia Muslims.
• Ashurah music—performed during the Muharram mourning period, commemorating the deaths of Imam Hussein and his followers. (Shia)
• Thikiri (from the Arabic word "Dhikr" which means remembrance of God—performed by the Qadiriyya Sufi orders of waYao or Yao people in East and Southern Africa (Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe, and South Africa).
• Manzuma—moral songs performed in Ethiopia.
• Madih nabawi—Arabic hymns praising Muhammad.

Modes[]

• Arabic Maqam
• Dastgah

Instruments[]

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Although there are a wide variety of opinions on the permissibility of musical instruments, those who produce Islamic music with instruments often feature the following instruments:

Traditional:

• Drums (daf, bendir, zarb, rebana...)
• Gongs
• Lute or oud
• Wind instruments (ney...)
  • Reed instruments (shehnai...)

Recent introductions:

• Harmonium (popular in Pakistan and India)

Lyrics[]

When lyrics are not simply repeated and elaborated invocations (Yah Nabi and the like), they are usually poems in forms common in the local literature.^{[citation needed]}

Differences of opinion over prohibition[]

Strictly speaking, the words ‘Islamic religious music’ present a contradiction in terms. The practice of orthodox Sunni and Shi‘a Islam does not involve any activity recognized within Muslim cultures as ‘music’. The melodious recitation of the Holy Qur'an and the call to prayer are central to Islam, but generic terms for music have never been applied to them. Instead, specialist designations have been used. However, a wide variety of religious and spiritual genres that use musical instruments exists, usually performed at various public and private assemblies outside the orthodox sphere.

— Eckhard Neubauer, Veronica Doubleday, Islamic religious music, New Grove Dictionary of Music online^[4]

The question of permissibility of music in Islamic jurisprudence is historically disputed,^[1] and with the advent of a whole new generation of Muslim musicians who try to blend their work and faith", the issue "has taken on extra significance."^[5] Views on music range from it being strictly forbidden, to generally forbidden but with varying restrictions such as singing is allowed, or only one or two instruments are allowed, or music is allowed if it does not lead listeners into temptation.

No exceptions[]

Those who believe the Quran and hadith "strictly" prohibits music include the Salafi, Wahhabi and Deobandi.^[5]

The Quran does not specifically refer to music itself. Yet, some scholars (Ibn ‘Abbaas, Al-Hasan al-Basri, Al-Sa’di, Ibn al-Qayyim, Abu’l-Sahbaa’)^[6] have interpreted the phrase "idle talk" in Sura (chapter) of Luqman as referring to music.

• “And of mankind is he who purchases idle talks [in another translation: "the amusement of speech"; in yet another: "theatrics"] to mislead others from the path of Allah…” [Luqmaan 31:6].^[6]

Several scholars have also proposed as evidence that music is forbidden the passage in which Allah says to Iblis: "And befool them gradually, those whom you can fool among them, with your voice, mobilize against them all your cavalry and infantry, manipulate them in their wealth and children, and make them promises.” [al-Israa’ 17:64]^[7][8][9]

It has also been said that some hadith refer to music, "always in an unfavourable way"^[5] -- for example:

• "Singing sprouts hypocrisy in the heart as rain sprouts plants";^[5]
• "There will be among my Ummah people who will regard as permissible adultery, silk, alcohol and musical instruments".^[10] Some dispute the authenticity of this hadith, most notably Ibn Hazm al-Dhahiri.^[11] -- but there is disagreement over whether these hadith is reliable or weak.^[5]

In his survey of Islamic scholarship of "enjoined what was good and forbade what was bad" in accordance to Islamic law, historian Michael Cook found that "attacks on offending objects are a ubiquitous theme ... There are, for example, chess-boards to be overturned, supposedly sacred trees to be cut down and decorative images to destroy or deface ... But the targets that are mentioned again and again are liquor and musical instruments. (An exception was sometimes made for tambourines which were used to announce marriages.)"^[12]

Some exceptions[]

• Other Muslims believe musical instruments are haram and only vocals are allowed, but the performer must be of the same gender as the audience.^[13]
• Non-instrumental music (whatever the audience) has led to a rich tradition of a cappella devotional singing in Islam.^[5] In support of singing being hala, "The jurist Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi says, 'No sound hadith is available concerning the prohibition of singing,' while Ibn Hazm says, 'All that is reported on this subject is false and fabricated.'"^[14]
• There are some Muslims who believe drums are permissible, but no other instruments.^[5]
• Zakir Naik, maintains musical instruments are haram except for two -- the daf (a traditional one sided drum) and tambourine, which are also mentioned in Hadith.^[15]
  • An exception in the prohibition of music can be made for women playing the Daf, at celebrations and festivals, according to a minority group of Sunni Islam and another a group of Shiites.^[16] This exception comes from a well-known hadith in which two small girls were singing to a woman,^[6] and the Islamic Prophet Muhammad instructed Abu Bakr to let them continue, stating, "Leave them Abu Bakr, for every nation has an Eid (i.e. festival) and this day is our Eid".^[17]
• Still other Muslims believe that all instruments are allowed, provided they are used for acceptable or halal types of music and are not exciting.^[14] Hence there is a long history of instrumental accompaniments to devotional songs, particularly in the Shia and Sufi traditions.^[5] Many Sufi orders use music as part of their worship.^[18]

• According to the Irish Times, "a majority of Muslims" follow the view taken by modern scholars such as Yusuf al-Qaradawi that music is forbidden "only if it leads the believer into activities that are clearly defined as prohibited, such as drinking alcohol and illicit sex".^[5]

Imam al-Ghazzali, reported several hadith and came to the conclusion that music in and of itself is permitted, saying: "All these Ahadith are reported by al-Bukhari and singing and playing are not haram." He also references a narration from Khidr, wherein a favorable opinion of music is expressed. Although this is disputed by others who disagree.^[19][13]

Notable people who are regarded as having believed music is halal include Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi, Ibn al-Qaisarani, Ibn Sina, Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, Rumi, Ibn Rushd, and Ibn Hazm.^{[citation needed][20][21]}

Yusuf al-Qaradawi

Yusuf al-Qaradawi in his book "The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam", states songs/singing is not haram unless:

1. the subject matter of songs is "against the teachings of Islam", such as praising wine;
2. the "manner" of singing is haram, such as "being accompanied by suggestive sexual movement";
3. it leads to "excessive involvement with entertainment", such as wasting time that ought to be spent on religion;
4. if it "arouses one's passions, leads him towards sin, excites the animal instincts, and dulls spirituality";
5. if it is done "in conjunction with haram activities – for example, at a drinking party".^[14]

Shia and Iran[]

Based upon the authentic Islamic ahadith, numerous Iranian Grand Ayatollahs; Sadiq Hussaini Shirazi, Mohammad-Reza Golpaygani, Lotfollah Safi Golpaygani, Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi, Ahmad Jannati and others, ruled that all music and instrument playing is haram, no matter the purpose.^[22][23][24] Grand Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini held similar religious position, stating on 23 July 1979: "If you want independence for your country, you must suppress music and not fear to be called old‐fashioned. Music is a betrayal of the nation and of youth."^[25] During the Iranian Revolution, Khomeini said: "...music is like a drug, whoever acquires the habit can no longer devote himself to important activities. We must completely eliminate it."^[26] From 1979 to 1989, all the music on radio and television was banned except occasional "revolutionary songs" that were performed in a strong martial style.^[27] After Khomeini's death, reformist Rafsanjani and Khatami administrations gradually lifted the ban on music. The current supreme leader of Iran, Ali Khamenei, in 2014 has stated his admiration of Western music,^[28] and nowadays music is officially permitted in Iran by the government as long as it is either Iranian folk music, Iranian classical music, or Iranian pop music.^[29]

Contemporary Islamic music[]

Notable nasheed artists include:

• Atif Aslam – Pakistan
• Ahmad Hussain – United Kingdom
• Ahmed Bukhatir – United Arab Emirates
• Ahmet Özhan – Turkey
• Akagündüz Kutbay – Turkey
• Abu Ratib – Syria
• Al-Andalus Ensemble – Spain
• Dawud Wharnsby – United States
• Haddad Alwi – Indonesia
• Syech bin Abdul Qodir Assegaf – Indonesia
• Hamza Namira – Egypt
• Hamza Robertson – United Kingdom
• Imad Rami – Syria
• Junaid Jamshed – Pakistan
• Maher Zain – Sweden
• Mecca2Medina – United Kingdom
• Mesut Kurtis – United Kingdom
• Muslim Belal – United Kingdom
• Native Deen – United States
• Nazeel Azami – United Kingdom
• Raef – United States
• Raihan – Malaysia
• Sami Yusuf – United Kingdom
• Yahya Hawwa – Syria
• Yusuf Islam – United Kingdom
• Zain Bhikha – South Africa

Notable Sufi singers include:

• Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan – Pakistan
• Abida Parveen – Pakistan
• Sabri Brothers – Pakistan
• Munshi Raziuddin – India
• Fareed Ayaz – Pakistan
• Alam Lohar – Pakistan

Noted composers:

• A. R. Rahman – India
• Resul Pookutty – India
• Rohail Hyatt – Pakistan
• Harris J – United Kingdom

See also[]

• Afghanistan National Institute of Music
• Durood
• Hamd
• Islamic poetry
• Mawlid
• Mehfil
• Na'at
• Nasheed
• Religious music in Iran
• Sufi poetry
• Sufism
• Sufi music

References[]

Further reading[]

• Neubauer, Eckhardt; Doubleday, Veronica (2001). "Islamic religious music". Grove Music online. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52787. ISBN 978-1-56159-263-0. Retrieved 2021-04-12.
• Jenkins, Jean and Olsen, Poul Rovsing (1976). Music and Musical Instruments in the World of Islam. World of Islam Festival. ISBN 0-905035-11-9.
• Habib Hassan Touma (1996). The Music of the Arabs, trans. Laurie Schwartz. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. ISBN 0-931340-88-8.
• Shiloah, Amnon (1995). "Music in the World of Islam: A Socio-cultural study." Wayne State University Press. Detroit. ISBN 0-8143-2589-0

External links[]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Islamic music.