Maya rulers
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Maya civilization |
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History |
Preclassic Maya |
Classic Maya collapse |
Spanish conquest of the Maya |
Maya kings were the centers of power for the Maya civilization. Each Maya city-state was controlled by a dynasty of kings. The position of king was usually inherited by the oldest son.
Symbols of power[]
Maya kings felt the need to legitimize their claim to power. One of the ways to do this was to build a temple or pyramid. Tikal Temple I is a good example. This temple was built during the reign of Yikʼin Chan Kʼawiil. Another king named Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal would later carry out this same show of power when building the Temple of Inscriptions at Palenque. The Temple of Inscriptions still towers today amid the ruins of Palenque, as the supreme symbol of influence and power in Palenque.
Succession[]
Maya kings cultivated godlike personas. When a ruler died and left no heir to the throne, the result was usually war and bloodshed. King Pacal's precursor, Pacal I, died upon the battlefield. However, instead of the kingdom erupting into chaos, the city of Palenque, a Maya capital city in southern Mexico, invited in a young prince from a different city-state. The prince was only twelve years old.
Expansion[]
Pacal and his predecessors not only built elaborate temples and pyramids. They expanded their city-state into a thriving empire. Under Yikʼin Chan Kʼawiil, Tikal conquered Calakmul and the other cities around Tikal, forming what could be referred to as a super city-state. Pacal achieved in creating a major center for power and development.
Responsibilities[]
A Maya king was expected to be an excellent military leader. He would often carry out raids against rival city-states. The Maya kings also offered their own blood to the gods. The rulers were also expected to have a good mind to solve problems that the city might be facing, including war and food crises.
Maya kings were expected to ensure the gods received the prayers, praise and attention they deserved and to reinforce their divine lineage.[1] They did this by displaying public rituals such as processions through the streets of their cities. A more private ritual was that of blood sacrifice, which was done by Lords and their wives.[2]
Known rulers of Mayan city-states[]
Notes:
- All dates AD; if otherwise, it is stated.
- The lists may not be completed. However, take in consideration that some lists are more completed than others in different aspects.
- English language names are provisional nicknames based on their identifying glyphs, where rulers' Maya language names have not yet been definitively deciphered phonetically.
Aguateca[]
- Ucha'an K'an B'alam – father of Tan Te' Kinich, ruled in the 8th century AD.
- Tan Te' K'inich – son of Ucha'an K'an B'alam, ruled from 770 AD to approximately 802 AD.[3]
La Amelia[]
Name/Glyph | Other names | Image | Born | Reigned from | Reigned until | Death | Consort (s) | Monuments | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lachan Kʼawiil Ajaw Bot | 25 June 760 | 1 May 802 | After 804 | After 804 | ? | In 802, conducted a ritual supervised by king Tan Teʼ Kʼinich of Aguateca. |
Calakmul []
Name/Glyph | Other names | Image | Born | Reigned from | Reigned until | Death | Consort (s) | Monuments | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yuknoom Chʼeen I | ? | c.484 | c.520 | c.520 Calakmul |
? at least onde child |
Founder of the dynasty, or at least the first recorded ruler of the city. | |||
Tuun K'ab' Hix | Cu Ix, Ku Ix, K'altuun Hix, Bound-Stone Jaguar |
? Calakmul Son of Yuknoom Chʼeen I |
c.520 | c.546 | c.546 Calakmul |
Lady Ek' Naah at least one child |
His daughter married a lord from La Corona. | ||
Sky Witness | ? | Before 561 | 572 | 572 Dzibanche |
? | Made war with Tikal and won over that city, causing the collapse of the extensive power that Tikal had. | |||
Yax Yopaat | ? | 572 | 579 | 579 Dzibanche |
? | His life is mostly unknown today. | |||
Uneh Chan | Scroll Serpent | ? Dzibanche |
2 September 579 | 611 | 611 Dzibanche |
at least one child |
|||
Yuknoom Ti' Chan | Chan | ? | c.619 | ? | ? | ||||
Tajoom Ukʼab Kʼahkʼ | Ta Batz | ? | 28 March 622 | 1 October 630 | 1 October 630 | ? | |||
Yuknoom Head | Cauac Head | ? | 630 | 636 | 636 | ? |
|
||
Yuknoom Chʼeen II the Great | 11 September 600 Dzibanche Son of Uneh Chan and |
28 April 636 | 686 | 686 Calakmul (aged around 85/86) |
? at least three children |
|
His daughter married a lord from La Corona. | ||
? | c.695 | ? | ? | Probably a co-ruler. | |||||
Yuknoom Tookʼ Kʼawiil | Ruler 5/6/7 | ? | c.702 | c.731 | c.731 Calakmul |
[7] at least one child[8] |
|
His daughter married a lord from La Corona. | |
Wamaw K'awiil | ? | c.736 | ? | ? at least one child |
|||||
Bolon K'awiil I | Ruler Y Ruler 8 |
? Calakmul Son of Wamaw K'awiil[9] |
c.741 | ? | ? |
|
|||
Great Serpent | Ruler 8 Ruler Z |
? | c.751 | ? | [10] |
|
|||
Bolon Kʼawiil II | Ruler 9 | ? | c.771 | c.789 | c.789 Calakmul |
? |
|
||
? | c.849 | ? | ? | ||||||
? | c.909 | ? | ? |
|
Last known ruler of the city. |
Cancuén[]
Name | Ruled | Notes |
---|---|---|
Tajal Chan Ahk | 757 – c. 799 | Built the city palace in 770. |
Kan Maax | c.800 |
Caracol []
- 331–349: Te' K'ab Chaak
- c. 470: K'ak' Ujol K'inich I
- 484–514: Yajaw Te' K'inich I
- 531–534: K'an I
- 553–593: Yajaw Te' K'inich II (Lord Water)
- 599–613: Knot Ajaw
- 618–658: K'an II
- 658–680: K'ak' Ujol K'inich II
- c. 700: Ruler VII
- mid 8th century: name unknown
- 793: Tum Yohl K'inich
- 798: K'inich Joy K'awiil
- 810–830: K'inich Toob'il Yoaat
- 835–849: K'an III
- 859: Ruler XIII
Chiapa de Corzo[]
(Here two different sets of rulers are known, separated by a hiatus of nearly 100 years.)
- 600-605:
- 605-c.610:
- 643-c.650:
- ?-746:
- 746-776:
- 776-790:
Chichen Itzá[]
- c.869-890: K’ak’upakal K’awiil, possibly ruler or a high-ranked official
- c.930-950:
- ?-1047:
- 1047-?:
- c.1194: Canek
Cocom dynasty[]
- Hunac Ceel, general who conquered the city in the 12th–13th century, and founded a new ruling family.
Cobá[]
(Note: the order of the rulers is unknown)
- c.500? -?: Yu’npik Tok’, founded the city and the ruling family, which lasted in power until 780[11]
- ?: K’ahk’ Chitam
- ?: Uxman K’awiil
- ?: Yopaat Taj Naaj
- ?: Lady Yopaat
- ?: K’ahk’ Yopaat
- ?: K’aloomte
- ?: Xaman K’awiil
- ?: Ruler A (unknown)
- ?: Ruler B (unknown)
- ?: Ruler C (unknown)
- ?: Ruler D (unknown)
- ?: Ruler E (unknown)
Copán []
(Note:Despite the sparse references to previous rulers in Copán, the first safe reference is from 426. All the rulers, with the exception of the last one, appear in the called Altar Q.)
Name/Glyph | Other names | Image | Born | Reigned from | Reigned until | Death | Consort (s) | Monuments | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kʼinich Yax Kʼukʼ Moʼ | Great Sun, Quetzal Macaw |
c.380/390? Tikal |
426 | 437 | 437 Copán (aged around 47/57?) |
? at least one child |
|
Came from Tikal. Founder of Copán lineage, he also founded Quirigua's by installing there the first king, Tok Casper.[12] | |
Kʼinich Popol Hol | Great Sun | c.415 Copán Son of Kʼinich Yax Kʼukʼ Moʼ |
437 | 470 | c.470 Copán (aged around 54/55?) |
? |
|
Co-ruler with his father since 430, as he was shown in Structure 10L-26, dated to 9 December 435. Founded the institutions of the city. | |
?[13] | Ruler 3 | ? | c.455 | c.465? | c.465? Copán |
? | Identifiable with Ruler 3. Probably, given his reign date, a co-ruler. | ||
Ku Ix | K'altuun Hix, Tuun K'ab' Hix, Ruler 4 |
? | c.470? | 476 | c.476 Copán |
? |
|
Co-ruler since 465. | |
Ruler 5 | ? | c.475? | ? | ? | |||||
Muyal Jol | Ruler 6 | ? | c.485? | 504 | c.504 Copán |
? | |||
Bahlam Nehn | Mirror Jaguar, Waterlily Jaguar |
? | 504 | 524 or 544 | 524 or 544 Copán |
? at least one child |
|
||
Wil Ohl Kʼinich[14] | Head on Earth, Ruler 8 |
? | 532 | 551 | 551 Copán |
? | If Bahlam Nehn ruled until 544, Wil Ohl K'inich was a co-ruler until the former's death. | ||
Sak-Lu | Ruler 9 | ? | 551 | 553 | 553 Copán |
? |
|
||
Tzi-Bahlam | Moon Jaguar, Ruler 10 |
? Copán Son of Bahlam Nehn |
May 553 | 22 October 578 | 22 October 578 Copán |
? |
|
||
K'ak' Chan Yopaat[15] | Butz' Chan, Smoke Serpent |
564? Copán |
15 November 578[16] | 5 February 628 | 5 February 628 Copán (aged around 64?) |
? |
|
||
Chan Imix K'awiil | Smoke Jaguar, Smoke Imix |
597[13][17] or 612 Copán |
8[13] or 21[18] February 628 | 15 June 695 | 15 June 695 Copán (aged around 78/79 or 97/98) |
? |
|
Probably the longest-reigning ruler of the city. | |
Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil | Oxwitik,[19] 18 Rabbit |
? | 2 January or 15 June[13] 695 | 12 May 736 | 12 May 736 Quiriguá |
? |
|
If ascended on 2 January, he briefly co-ruled with his predecessor. He was captured and beheaded by the ruler of Quirigua. | |
Kʼakʼ Joplaj Chan Kʼawiil | Smoke Monkey | ? | 7 or 11 June[13] 738 | January 749 | January 749 Copán |
? at least one child |
|||
Kʼakʼ Yipyaj Chan Kʼawiil | Smoke Shell, Smoke Squirrel |
? Son of Kʼakʼ Joplaj Chan Kʼawiil |
18 February 749[13] | c.761[13] or January 763 | c.761 or January 763 Copán |
A lady from Palenque at least one child |
|
||
Yax Pasaj Chan Yopaat | Yax Pac, Rising Sun |
? Copán Son of Kʼakʼ Yipyaj Chan Kʼawiil |
2 July 763[13] | c.810[13] or January 763 | c.810 Copán |
|
|||
Ukit Took | Yax Pac, Yax Pasah 18 Rabbit |
? | 6 or 10[13] February 822 | c.830 | c.830 (or after) | ? |
|
Last known ruler of Copán, and the only who doesn't appear on the mentioned Altar Q. The city collapsed suddenly, possibly under an epidemic.[20] |
Dos Pilas []
Name/Glyph[21] | Other names | Image | Born | Reigned from | Reigned until | Death | Consort (s) | Monuments | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B'alaj Chan K'awiil | Ruler 1, Flint Sky, Flint Sky God K, Lightning Sky, Malah Chan K'awil |
15 October 625[22] Tikal Son of |
648[23] | 692 | c.692 Dos Pilas (aged around 66/67) |
Lady of Itzan at least two children Lady Bulu' at least one child |
He probably saw himself as the legitimate heir to the Tikal throne. Howwever, moved away from the capital to found a new one at Dos Pilas, which grew to become a rival kingdom, under overlordship of Calakmul.[24][25] One of his children was Lady Wak Chanil Ajaw, queen regnant Naranjo, who, by using the Tikal emblem, proved her ascendance, through B'alaj Chan K'awiil, from Tikal royal line. | ||
Itzamnaaj B'alam | Shield Jaguar | ? Dos Pilas Son of B'alaj Chan K'awiil and Lady of Itzan |
c.695 | ? Dos Pilas |
? | Little is known about him. He probably had a short reign. | |||
Itzamnaaj K'awiil | Ruler 2 Shield God K |
25 January 673 Calakmul Son of B'alaj Chan K'awiil and Lady of Itzan |
24 March 698 | 22 October 726 | 22 October 726 Dos Pilas (aged 53) |
? at least one child |
|
||
Ucha'an K'in B'alam | Ruler 3, Master of the Sun Jaguar, Scroll-head God K, Spangle-head, Jewelled-head |
? | 6 January 727 | 28 May 741 | 28 May 741 Dos Pilas |
Lady GI-Kʼawiil of Cancuén no children? |
|
Has no apparent family relation to his predecessors, being probably a regent. It is known that, twenty years earlier, he was already a prominent figure in the kingdom (being responsible, for example, for the capture of the lord of Tikal in 705, or involving himself closely in rituals performed by the previous king). As a ruler (regent or usurper) he provided strong leadership. Erected monuments in Dos Pilas and Aguateca. | |
Kʼawiil Chan Kʼinich | Ruler 4 God K Sky Mahkʼina |
Before 726 Dos Pilas Son of Itzamnaaj K'awiil |
23 June 741 | c.761 | After 761 | ? |
|
He was forced to flee from Dos Pilas in 761 and was never mentioned again. As a result, the date of his death is currently unknown. |
Ek' Balam []
Holmul[]
(Note: No known dates)
- ?: Och Chan Yopaat
- ?: Sakhb Chan Yopaat Makcha
- ?: K’inich Tacal Tun
- ?: Vilaan Chak Tok Vakhab
Iximche[]
Ahpo Sotzʼil[26] | Ahpo Xahil[27] | Kʼalel Achi | Ahuchan |
---|---|---|---|
Wuqu-Batzʼ | Hun-Toh | Chuluk | |
Oxlahuh-Tzʼiʼ | |||
Ixkun[]
Nickname | Ruled |
---|---|
Eight Skull[28] | –c. 790 |
Rabbit God K[29] | c. 790–800 |
Ixtutz[]
- c.780:[30] Aj Yaxjal B’aak
Izamal[]
- c.1000?: Ah Ulil
Machaquila[]
Name/Glyph | Other names | Image | Born | Reigned from | Reigned until | Death | Consort (s) | Monuments | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
? | c.475 | ? | ? | ||||||
? | ? | ? | ? | ||||||
? | 670 | 710 | c.710 Machaquila |
? |
|
||||
? | 711 | 761 | c.761 Machaquila |
? |
|
At the end of his reign, Machaquilá's suzerain kingdom, Dos Pilas, was abandoned and, during the political turmoil that followed, Cancuén stole power from Machaquilá.[31] | |||
? | c.775 | ? | ? |
|
|||||
Under Cancuén rule: 786-799 | |||||||||
5 December 770 Machaquila |
28 June 800 | 815 | 815 Machaquila (aged around 44/45) |
? at least one child |
|
||||
? Machaquila Son of |
2 April 815 | 824 | 824 Machaquila |
? at least one child |
|
||||
? Machaquila Son of |
3 March 824 | 840 | 840 Machaquila |
? |
|
||||
? | 824 | 840 | ? | ? |
La Mar[]
- 781-?: Parrot Chaak
Mixco Viejo[]
Name | Ruled | Alternative names |
---|---|---|
Lajuj No'j | c.1450–c.1480[32] | Ichalkan Chi Kumkwat, Ychal Amollac Chicumcuat |
Achi Q'alel | early 16th century[33] | – |
Moral Reforma[]
- 662-after 690: Muwaan Jol, ascended under king Yuknoom of Calakmul; however, in 690, ascended once again under the king of Palenque.
Motul de San José[]
- 701-c.710:
- c.700–725: Sak Muwaan
- c.725-735:
- ?:
- c.742–755: Yajaw Teʼ Kʼinich (son of Sak Muwaan)
- c.755–779: Lamaw Ek'
Naranjo []
Name/Glyph | Other names | Image | Born | Reigned from | Reigned until | Death | Consort (s) | Monuments | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
? | ? | ? | ? |
|
First known ruler. | ||||
? | ? | c.475 | ? | ? |
|
||||
? | ? | ? | ? | ||||||
? Naranjo Son of [35] |
? | ? | ? | ||||||
[35] | ? | ? | ? | at least one child |
Inferred as king by his son's inscriptions. | ||||
Double Comb[36] | 534 Naranjo Son of and [35] |
5 May 546[36] | 615 | 615 Naranjo (aged around 80/81) |
? |
|
|||
? | ? | c.626 | ? | ? | Defeated by Caracol | ||||
? | c.631 | ? | ? | Defeated by Calakmul | |||||
K'ahk' Xiiw Chan Chaahk | ? | c.644 | c.680 | c.680 Naranjo |
? | 37th ruler of Naranjo, according to the inscriptions on the site. His rule, however, didn't produce any surviving monuments.[37] He was victorious against Caracol. | |||
Kʼakʼ Tiliw Chan Chaak (Under regency of Lady Wak Chanil of Dos Pilas until 26 March 706[36]) |
Smoking Squirrel[36] | 4 January 688 Naranjo Son of and Lady Wak Chanil of Dos Pilas |
31 May 693 | c.720 | c.720 (or after[38][36]) Naranjo (aged around 31/32) |
21 March 710[36] at least one child |
|
His father was probably a cousin of K'ahk' Xiiw Chan Chaahk. Shortly after his accesson, Naranjo fought and won a series of victories against polities, some of whom may have been rebelling against K'ak' Tiliw's mother. It's possible that was his mother the organizer of many of Naranjo campaigns that, early in his reign, defeated Yaxha, Tikal, and Ucanal. | |
Wak Chanil of Dos Pilas |
Lady Six Sky | 15 July 669 (or after[39][36]) Dos Pilas Daughter of Bʼalaj Chan Kʼawiil, King of Dos Pilas and Lady Bulu' |
11 October 721 | 11 February 741 | 11 February 741 Naranjo (aged around 72) |
at least one child |
|
Mother of her predecessor. Previously regent on her son's behalf, from 721 assumed the reins of the kingdom herself as queen regnant. | |
Yax Mayuy Chan Chaak | ? Naranjo Son of and Lady Wak Chanil of Dos Pilas |
c.741 | 4 February 744 | 4 February 744 Naranjo or Tikal? |
? |
|
Defeated by Tikal and sacrificed. | ||
? | 15 August 746[35] | 748 | 748 Naranjo |
? |
|
||||
? Naranjo Son of Kʼakʼ Tiliw Chan Chaak and |
8 November 755[35] | 780 | 780 Naranjo |
at least two children[35] |
|
||||
? Naranjo Son of and [35] |
? | ? | ? | ||||||
Shield God K, Shield |
13 March 771 Naranjo Son of and [35] |
4 February 784 | 810 | c.810 Naranjo (aged around 38/39) |
|
He was victorious against Yaxha. | |||
? | c.814 | ? | ? |
|
Palenque []
Mythological and legendary rulers[]
- c.2325 BC
- c.987 BC
- c.252 BC
Palenque dynasty[]
Name/Glyph | Other names | Image | Born | Reigned from | Reigned until | Death | Consort (s) | Monuments | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kʼukʼ Bahlam I |
Kuk, Bahlum K'uk' |
30 March 397 Palenque |
10 March 431[40] | 435 | 435 Palenque (aged 37/38) |
? |
|
Founder of the dynasty. | |
Casper |
11 Rabbit | 8 August 422 Palenque Son of Kʼukʼ Bahlam I? |
9 August 435 | c.487 | c.487 Palenque (aged 64/65) |
? | |||
Bʼutz Aj Sak Chiik |
Manik | 15 November 459 Palenque Son of Casper? |
28 July 487 | c.501 | c.501 Palenque (aged 41/42) |
? | His successor, Ahkal Moʼ Nahb, was probably his brother.[40] | ||
Ahkal Moʼ Nahb I |
Chaacal I, Akul Anab I |
5 July 465 Palenque Son of Casper?[40] |
3 June 501 | 29 November 524 | 29 November 524 Palenque (aged 59) |
? | The list of ancestors made by his descendant Pakal the Great starts with him.[40] | ||
Interregnum: 524–529 | |||||||||
Kʼan Joy Chitam I |
Hok, Kan Xul I, K'an Hok' Chitam |
5 May 490 Palenque Son of Ahkal Moʼ Nahb I? |
6 February 529 | 6 February 565 | 6 February 565 Palenque (aged 74) |
? two children |
|||
Ahkal Moʼ Nahb II |
Chaacal II, Akul Anab II |
3 September 523 Palenque Son of Kʼan Joy Chitam I |
2 May 565 | 21 July 570 | 21 July 570 Palenque (aged 46) |
? no children |
|||
Kan Bahlam I |
Chan Bahlum I | 18 September 524 Palenque Son of Kʼan Joy Chitam I |
6 April 572 | 1 February 583 | 1 February 583 Palenque (aged 58) |
? one child? |
|||
Yohl Ikʼnal |
Lady Kan Ik, Lady K'anal Ik'nal |
? Palenque Daughter of Kʼan Joy Chitam I or Kan Bahlam I |
21 December 583 | 5 November 604 | 5 November 604 Palenque |
? two children |
|||
Ajen Yohl Mat |
Aj Ne' Ohl Mat, Ac Kan, Ahl Lawal Mat |
? Palenque Son of Yohl Ikʼnal? |
1 January 605 | 8 or 11 August 612 | 8 or 11 August 612 Palenque |
? two children |
During his reign (4 April 611), Palenque was invaded by Calakmul. | ||
Janahb Pakal | Janaab Pakal, Pakal I |
? Palenque Son of Yohl Ikʼnal? |
c.612 | c.612 Palenque |
Yohl Ikʼnal? at least one child |
Position uncertain. | |||
Sak K'uk' |
Muwaan Mat, Lady Beastie |
? Palenque Daughter of Janahb Pakal I and Yohl Ikʼnal? |
20 October 612[36] | 27 July 615[36] | 10 September 640 Palenque |
Kʼan Moʼ Hix one or two children |
Abdicated to her son. | ||
Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal I the Great |
Pacal, 8 Ahau, Sun Shield |
19 March 603 Palenque Son of Kʼan Moʼ Hix and Sak K'uk' |
27 July 615[36] | 26 August 683 | 26 August 683 Palenque aged 80 |
three children |
|
He was responsible for the construction or extension of some of Palenque's most notable surviving inscriptions and monumental architecture. | |
K'inich Kan Bahlam II |
Chan Bahlum II | May 635 Palenque Son of Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal I and |
January 684 | February 702 | February 702 Palenque aged 66 |
? no children |
|
He continued the ambitious project of adorning Palenque with fine art and architecture begun by his father. | |
K'inich K'an Joy Chitam II |
Kan Xul II, K'an Hok' Chitam On II |
31 October 644 Palenque Son of Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal I and |
28 May 702 | c.721 | 721 Palenque aged 76/77 |
? no children |
|
He was captured by Toniná in 711, but possibly restored to kingship. | |
Kʼinich Ahkal Moʼ Nahb III |
Chaacal III, Akul Anab III |
23 September 678 Palenque Son of Tiwol Chan Mat and Kinuw |
30 December 721 | c.736 | c.736 Palenque aged 57/58 |
one child |
Grandson of Kʼinich Janaab Pakal I. His construction program rivaled that of his predecessors, and contributed enormously to the surviving records of Palenque history. | ||
Kʼinich Janaab Pakal II |
Upakal K'inich | ? Palenque Son of Tiwol Chan Mat and Kinuw |
c.742 | ? | ? one child |
|
Probable brother of the predecessor. | ||
K'inich Kan Bahlam III |
? | c.751 | ? | ? | A text at Pomona, the only source of his existence, suggests that his reign was short or troubled.[44] | ||||
K'inich K'uk' Bahlam II |
Bahlum K'uk' II, Mahk'ina K'uk' |
? Palenque Son of Kʼinich Ahkal Moʼ Nahb III and |
4 March 764 | c.783 | c.783 Palenque |
? |
|
||
Janaab Pakal III |
6 Cimi Pakal | ? | 13 November 799 | ? | ? |
El Perú[]
- 672–692: Lady K'abel
Piedras Negras []
Name/Glyph | Other names | Image | Born | Reigned from | Reigned until | Death | Consort (s) | Monuments | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
K'an Ahk I |
Ruler A Turtleshell |
? | c.297[45] | ? | ? | Ruler A was later captured by Moon Skull of Yaxchilan[45] | |||
K'an Ahk II |
Ruler B | ? | c.478[45] | ? | ? | ||||
Yat Ahk I |
Ah Cauac Ah K'in Turtletooth |
? | c.510[46] | ? | ? | ||||
Ruler C | ? | June 30, 514[45] | c.520[46] | c.520 Piedras Negras |
? |
|
|||
K'inich Yo'nal Ahk I |
Ruler 1 | ? | 14 November 603[47] | 3 February 639[47] | 3 February 639[47] Piedras Negras |
at least one child |
Some scholars have argued that K'inich Yo'nal Ahk I refounded the ruling dynasty at Piedras Negras.[48] | ||
Itzam K'an Ahk I |
Ruler 2 | 22 May 626 Piedras Negras Son of K'inich Yo'nal Ahk I and |
12 April 639[49] | 15 November 686[49] | 15 November 686 Piedras Negras [49] (aged 50) |
at least one child |
|||
K'inich Yo'nal Ahk II |
Ruler 3 | 29 November 664 Piedras Negras Son of Itzam K'an Ahk I and |
2 January 687[51] | c. 729[49][52] | c. 729[49][52] Piedras Negras (aged 64/65) |
K'atun of Namaan (5 July 674 – after 28 June 729) 686 one child |
|||
Itzam K'an Ahk II |
Ruler 4 | 18 November 701 Piedras Negras |
9 November 729[53] | 26 November 757[53] | 26 November 757 Piedras Negras (aged 56) |
? possibly three children |
There is evidence that Itzam K'an Ahk II started a new patriline at Piedras Negras.[54] | ||
Yo'nal Ahk III |
Ruler 5 | ? Piedras Negras Son of Itzam K'an Ahk II |
10 March 758[55] | c. 767[55] | c. 767[55] Piedras Negras |
? | |||
Ha' K'in Xook |
Ruler 6 | ? Piedras Negras Son of Itzam K'an Ahk II |
14 February 767[55] | 24 March 780[55] | 24 March 780[55] or after 780[56] Piedras Negras |
? | Appears to have either died or abdicated.[55] Scholars are unsure if March 24, 780 AD refers to Ha' K'in Xook's death date, or rather the date of his burial.[48][55] | ||
K'inich Yat Ahk II |
Ruler 7 | ? Piedras Negras Son of Itzam K'an Ahk II |
31 May 781[57] | c. 808[58] | c. 808[58] Piedras Negras |
? | Took the throne almost a year following the death of Ha' K'in Xook. Despite this time gap, there is no evidence anyone was ruling Piedras Negras in the interim.[59] He was later captured by K'inich Tatbu Skull IV of Yaxchilan.[60] |
Pusilha[]
- c.569-595: (this first ruler and dynasty probably descended from the first dynasty of Naranjo[61])
- c.595-650:
- c.650-670:
- c.670-680:
- c.680-710:
- c.710-731:
- c.731-750: (began a new line of rulers)
- c.750-768:
- c.768-c.800?:
Quiriguá []
Name (or nickname) | Ruled | Dynastic succession no.[62] |
---|---|---|
"Tok Casper" | 426–?[63] | 1 |
Tutuum Yohl K'inich | c. 455[63] | ? |
"Ruler 3" ("Turtle Shell") | c. 480[63][64] | ? |
"Ruler 4" ("Basket Skull") | ?–?[64] | 3? |
Mih Toh | 493–[64] | 4? |
K'awiil Yopaat ("Ruler 5") | c. 653[64] | ? |
K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat ("Cauac Sky" or "Kawak Sky") | 724–785[65] | 14 |
"Sky Xul" | 785 – c. 795[65] | 15 |
"Jade Sky" | c. 800 – c. 810[65] | 17? |
Q'umarkaj[]
- c.1225–1250: Bahlam Kitze
- c.1250–1275: Kʼokʼoja
- c.1275–1300: E Tzʼikin
- c.1300–1325: Ajkan
- c.1325–1350: Kʼokaibʼ
- c.1350–1375: Kʼonache
- c.1375–1400: Kʼotuja
- c.1400–1435: Quqʼkumatz
- c.1435–1475: Kʼiqʼabʼ
- c.1475–1500: Vahxakʼ i-Kaam
- c.1500–1524: Oxib Keh
Río Azul[]
- Ruler X, not yet satisfactorily deciphered.
Sacul []
Sak tz'i[]
Name | Dates |
---|---|
U K'ab'[67] | c. 564 |
K'ab Chan Te' I | c. 594–641 |
K'ab Chan Te' II? | c.653–693 |
Aj Sak Maax | c.754–772 |
Yeht' K'inich | c. 787 |
Jats' Tokal Ek' Hiix | c.796? |
K'ab' Chan Te' III | c. 864 |
Seibal[]
Name | Title or nickname | Ruled |
---|---|---|
? (7th-8th century?) | ||
"Jaguar Claw" | ?-c.735 | |
Ich'aak Bahlam II | "Jaguar Claw" | c.735–c.750[68] |
? | ||
Ajaw B'ot | Ruler D, Ah-Bolon-Abta[69] | 771–?[70] |
Wat'ul Chatel[71] | Aj B'olon Haab'tal[72] | 830–889+[72] |
[73] | c.860? | |
c.880? |
Tamarindito[]
Name | Ruled |
---|---|
Ruler 1 | ca. 513 |
Wakoh K'inich | ca. 534 – ca. 554 |
Ruler 3 | ca. 573 |
Ruler 4 | – 613 |
Wakoh Chan K'inich | a. 613 – |
Aj Ajan Nah | ca. 660 |
Aj Ihk' Wolok | ca. 660 – ca. 702 |
Ruler 8 | ca. 705 |
Ruler 9 | – ca. 711 |
Ruler 10 | – 712 |
Chak Bin Ahk | a. 712 – ca. 731 |
Chanal Balam | a. 760 – ca. 764 |
Teotihuacan[]
- c.378: Spearthrower Owl, ruled when his son took over Tikal.
Tikal []
Name/Glyph[74][75] | Other names | Image | Born | Reigned from | Reigned until | Death | Consort (s) | Monuments | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yax Ehb' Xok |
Yax Moch Xok, Yax Chakte'l Xok, First Scaffold Shark[76] |
? | c.90 | ? | ? | Founder of Tikal lineage | |||
? Bahlam[77] |
Foliated Jaguar Decorated Jaguar[77] Scroll Ahau Jaguar |
? | c.292 | ? | ? |
|
|||
K'inich Ehb'[78] |
Animal Headdress | ? | ? | ? | at least one child |
|
|||
Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil I |
? Tikal Son of K'inich Ehb' and |
c.307 | ? | ? | |||||
Unen Bahlam |
Lady Une' B'alam | ? |
c.317 | ? | ? |
|
Assumed to be female, the sex of this ruler is in fact unclear. | ||
Kʼinich Muwaan Jol |
Mahk'ina Bird Skull, Feather Skull |
? | ? | 23 May 359 | 23 May 359 Tikal |
at least one child |
|
||
Chak Tok Ichʼaak I |
Great Paw, Great Jaguar Paw, Toh Chak Ichʼak |
? Tikal Son of Kʼinich Muwaan Jol and |
7 August 360 | 14 January 378 | 14 January 378 Tikal |
? |
|
In the day he died, Tikal was invaded by troops leaded by Siyaj Kʼakʼ, who overthrew the reigning family. | |
Yax Nuun Ayiin I |
Curl Snout Curl Nose |
? Teotihuacan Son of Spearthrower Owl |
12 September 379 | 17 June 404 | 17 June 404 Tikal |
at least one child |
|
Probably son of the king of Teotihuacan, founded a new line of rulers in Tikal. | |
Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II |
Storm Sky Manikin Cleft Sky |
? Tikal Son of Yax Nuun Ayiin I and |
26 November 411 | 3 February 456 | 3 February 456 Tikal |
at least one child |
|
||
Kʼan Chitam |
Kan Boar K'an Ak |
26 November 415 Tikal Son of Sihyaj Chan Kʼawiil II and |
8 August 458 | 486 | 486 Tikal (aged 70/71) |
at least one child |
|
||
Chak Tok Ichʼaak II |
Jaguar Paw II Jaguar Paw Skull |
? Tikal Son of Kʼan Chitam and |
486 | 24 July 508 | 24 July 508 Tikal |
Probably two children |
|||
Yo K'in[77] |
Lady of Tikal | 1 September 504 Tikal Daughter of Chak Tok Ichʼaak II and ? |
19 April 511 | 527 | After 527 Tikal |
? |
|
Ruled jointly. Possibly married? | |
Kaloomteʼ Bahlam |
Curl Head | ? | c.511 Tikal |
527 | After 527 Tikal |
? |
| ||
Bird Claw |
Animal Skull | ? | ? | ? | ? |
|
Ruled after Yo K'in. He carried a high-ranking name but no Tikal emblem.[81] Possibly an interim ruler, or usurper? | ||
Wak Chan Kʼawiil |
Double Bird | January 508 Tikal Son of Chak Tok Ichʼaak II and |
27 December 537 | 562 | 562 Tikal (aged 53/54) |
? |
|
||
K'inich Waaw[77] |
Animal Skull Lizard Head, Ete II |
? Tikal Son of Fire Cross and Lady Hand Sky of Bahlam |
562? or 593[77] | 628[77] | 628 Tikal |
? | |||
?[77] | 23rd Ruler? | ? | c. 635 (if he is the 23rd Ruler) or c.628–650 |
? | ? |
|
Probably identifiable with 23rd Ruler? | ||
[77] | 24th Ruler? | ? | c. 645 (if he is the 24th Ruler) or c.628–650 |
? | ? at least one child |
Probably identifiable with 24th Ruler? | |||
Nuun Ujol Chaak[77] |
Shield Skull Nun Ban Chak |
? Tikal Son of |
657 | 679 | 679 Tikal |
at least one child |
|
||
Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I[77] |
Ruler A Ah Cacao Sky Rain |
? Tikal Son of Nuun Ujol Chaak and |
3 May 682 | 734 | 734 Tikal |
Lady Lahan Unen Moʼ at least one child |
|
His defeat of the rival Maya city of Calakmul in 695 is seen to represent a resurgence in the strength and influence of Tikal. | |
Yikʼin Chan Kʼawiil |
Ruler B Yaxkin Caan Chac Sun Sky Rain |
? Tikal Son of Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I and Lady Lahan Unen Moʼ |
8 December 734 | 766? | 766? Tikal |
? at least two children |
|
He was one of Tikal's most successful and expansionary rulers, consolidating the political gains won by his father. | |
28th Ruler | ? Tikal Son of Yikʼin Chan Kʼawiil |
c.766 | c.768 | c.768? Tikal |
? | Little is known about this ruler. | |||
Yax Nuun Ayiin II |
Ruler C Chitam |
? Tikal Son of Yikʼin Chan Kʼawiil |
25 December 768 | c.794 | c.794 Tikal |
? |
|
||
Nuun Ujol Kʼinich |
? | Between 794 and 810 | ? | ? at least one child |
|
||||
Dark Sun |
? Tikal Son of Nuun Ujol Kʼinich |
c.849 | ? | ? |
|
||||
Jewel K'awiil |
? | c.849 | ? | ? | |||||
Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil II |
Stella 11 Ruler | ? | c.869 | c.889 | c.889? Tikal |
? |
|
Toniná []
Name (or nickname) | Ruled | Alternative names |
---|---|---|
[82] | ? | Cabeza de Reptil ("Reptile's Head") |
[82] | 6th century | Jaguar Bird Peccary; Zots Choj |
Chac B'olon Chaak[82] | ? | – |
K'inich Hix Chapat[82] | c. 595–665 | Personage 2 |
Ruler 2[83] | 668–687 | Jaguar Casper |
K'inich B'aaknal Chaak[84] | 688–715 | Ruler 3; Personage 3; Kuk; Craneo de Serpiente ("Snake Skull") |
Ruler 4[83] | 708–723 | Dios Jaguar ("Jaguar God") |
K'inich Ich'aak Chapat[85] | 723–739+ | Ruler 5; Garra de Jaguar ("Jaguar Claw") |
K'inich Tuun Chapat[85] | to 762 | Ruler 6; Ruler 8 |
Ruler 7[86] | ? | – |
Ruler 8[87] | c. 787–806+ | – |
Uh Chapat[87] | c. 837 | Ruler 9 |
Ruler 10[87] | c. 901 | – |
Ucanal[]
- Itzamnaaj Bahlam, ruled at least between 698 and 702.
Uxmal[]
- , founded the kingdom in year 500.
Xultun[]
- , depicted in a mural of a Late Classic room, 10K2
Yaxchilan []
Name/Glyph[74][75] | Other names | Image | Born | Reigned from | Reigned until | Death | Consort (s) | Monuments[88] | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
? | 23 July 359 | ?[89] | ? | ? | Founder of Yaxchilan lineage. | ||||
Shield Jaguar I | ? | ? | ? | ? | |||||
Bird Jaguar I | ? | 378 | 389 | 389 Yaxchilan |
? | ||||
? | 389 | 402 | 402 Yaxchilan |
? | |||||
Ruler 5 | ? | 402 | ? | ? | ? | ||||
? | ? | ? | ? | ||||||
? | 454 | 467 | 467 Yaxchilan |
? | His name is not an actual reference to the moon but is rather the Maya word for a spear-thrower. | ||||
Bird Jaguar II | ? | 467 | ? | ? | ? at least two children |
||||
Knot-eye Jaguar I | ? Yaxchilan Son of |
508 | 518 | 518 Yaxchilan |
? at least two children |
|
|||
? Yaxchilan Son of |
526 | 537 | 537 Yaxchilan |
? at least two children |
|
||||
Knot-eye Jaguar II | ? | c.560 | c.570 | c.570 Yaxchilan |
? | ||||
Itzamnaaj Bahlam II[89] | Shield Jaguar II | ? | c.599[89] or c.599-611[90] |
? | ? | ||||
? | ? | ? | ? at least one child |
||||||
Yaxun Bahlam III | 6-Tun-Bird Jaguar Bird Jaguar III |
? Yaxchilan Son of |
631 | 681 | 681 Yaxchilan |
Lady Pacal (c.607?–705) at least one child |
|
||
Itzamnaaj Bahlam III[89][92] | Shield Jaguar III | 647 Yaxchilan Son of Yaxun Bahlam III and Lady Pacal |
23 October 681 | 15 June 742 | 15 June 742 Yaxchilan (aged 94/95) |
Lady Xoc Lady Eveningstar of Calakmul (1 September 704–751) at least one child |
|
||
? | ? | c.749 | ? | ? | |||||
Yaxun Bahlam IV | Bird Jaguar IV | 709 Yaxchilan Son of Itzamnaaj Bahlam III and Lady Eveningstar of Calakmul |
752 | 768 | 768 Yaxchilan (aged 56/57) |
at least one child of Motul de San José of Motul de San José of Hix Witz[93] |
|||
[89][95] | Shield Jaguar IV | 18 February 752 Yaxchilan Son of Yaxun Bahlam IV and |
769 | c.800 | c.800 Yaxchilan (aged around 47/48) |
at least one child |
|
||
? Son of and |
c.808 | ? | ? |
|
Last known ruler of the city. |
Yaxha[]
- K'inich Lakamtuun (r.c.799[96])
Yo'okop[]
- , may have ruled under the overlord Sky Witness from Calakmul or Dzoyola.
See also[]
- List of rulers of Copan
- List of the rulers of Dos Pilas
- Rulers of Tikal
- Yaxchilan rulers
- Maya stelae
References[]
- ^ L., Tignor, Robert. Worlds together, worlds apart: a history of the world from the beginnings of humankind to the present (Fourth ed.). New York. ISBN 9780393123760. OCLC 854609153.
- ^ Tignor, Adelman, Brown, Elman, Liu, Pittman, Shaw, Robert, Jeremy, Peter, Benjamin, Xinru, Holly, Brent (2014). Worlds Together, Worlds Apart (V1). New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. pp. 311–313. ISBN 9780393922080.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 409.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Martin & Grube 2000, p. 65
- ^ Martin & Grube 2000; Zender 2004
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Maya Royal Dynasties
- ^ Kings of Calakmul
- ^ "Mesoweb Articles". www.mesoweb.com.
- ^ Martin and Grube 2008:114
- ^ Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens by Simon Martin and Nikolai Grube 2008:103, 115)
- ^ de 2020, 21 de Julio. "Una lideresa maya entre los secretos milenarios revelados en Cobá". infobae.
- ^ Martin & Grube 2000, p.216
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u "Maya Rulers of Copan". gei.aerobaticsweb.org.
- ^ Ascended 24 days after Tzi-Bahlam's death.
- ^ In Altar Q, only Ruler 12 (Chan Imix K'awiil) is shown living for 5 k'atun (about 98 years).
- ^ Ascended 16 days after K'ak' Chan Yopaat death.
- ^ Stuart 1996.
- ^ Snow 2010, p. 168.
- ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.384–5. Martin & Grube 2000 pp.56–60.
- ^ Salisbury, Koumenalis & Barbara Moffett 2002.
- ^ Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Webster 2002, p. 263.
- ^ Martin & Grube 2000, p. 56.
- ^ Schele & Mathews 1999, pp.296–297, 307. Polo Sifontes 1986, p.94.
- ^ Schele & Mathews 1999, pp.296–297. Guillemin 1967, p.34. Polo Sifontes 1986, p.94.
- ^ Laporte et al 2005, p.159.
- ^ Laporte 2005, pp. 224–225.
- ^ Zender, p.4.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Ninth-Century Stelae of Machaquilá and Seibal
- ^ Carmack 2001, p.153. Hill 1996, p.67. Hill 1998, p.237.
- ^ Carmack 2001, p.155.
- ^ Tokovinine, Alexandre; Fialko, Vilma (2007). "Stela 45 of Naranjo and the Early Classic Lords of Sa'aal". The PARI Journal.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "Los Gobernantes de Naranjo". www.mesoweb.com.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j The Dynastic History of Naranjo
- ^ Martin, Simon. Chronicle of the Maya kings and queens : deciphering the dynasties of the ancient Maya. Grube, Nikolai (Second ed.). London. ISBN 978-0-500-28726-2. OCLC 191753193.
- ^ Last monument of him in 26 October 716; in 721 he was already dead.
- ^ Wak Chanil's father was 14 years old in this date; it is the earliest date of her birth, which could also have happened later)
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Skidmore, Joel (2010). The Rulers of Palenque (PDF) (Fifth ed.). Mesoweb Publications. p. 6. Retrieved 12 October 2015.
- ^ Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 162–268.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Skidmore 2010, p. 74.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Martin & Grube 2008, pp. 168–170.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Martin, Simon; Nikolai Grube (2008). Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens: Deciphering the Dynasties of the Ancient Maya (2nd ed.). London and New York: Thames & Hudson. p. 175. ISBN 9780500287262. OCLC 191753193.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Martin & Grube 2000, p. 140.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Martin & Grube 2000, p. 141.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Martin & Grube 2000, p. 142.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Sharer, Robert; Traxler, Loa (2006). The Ancient Maya. California: Stanford University Press. pp. 421–431.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Martin & Grube 2000, p. 143.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Martin & Grube 2000, p. 145.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Martin & Grube 2000, p. 147.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Martin & Grube 2000, p. 148.
- ^ Martin & Grube 2000, p. 150.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Martin & Grube 2000, p. 151.
- ^ Clancy (2009), pp. 140–141.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Martin & Grube 2000, p. 152.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Martin & Grube 2000, p. 149.
- ^ O'Neil 2014, p. 142.
- ^ Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 152–153.
- ^ Prager, 2002
- ^ The numbers given here follow those noted in Looper 2003, p.205.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Martin & Grube 2000, p.216.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Looper 2003, pp. 205–209.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Martin & Grube 2000, p.218.
- ^ Laporte et al 2006, p.222.
- ^ Biro 2005, p. 31
- ^ Martin & Grube 2000, pp. 61, 63.
- ^ Tourtellot & González 2005, p. 68.
- ^ Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.409. Tourtellot & González 2005, p. 68.
- ^ Tourtellot & González 2005, pp. 68–9.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Sharer & Traxler 2006, p. 524.
- ^ "Сейбаль". May 25, 2020 – via Wikipedia.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Sharer & Traxler 2006, pp.310–2
- ^ Jump up to: a b Martin & Grube 2000 pp.26–52.
- ^ Drew 1999, p.187.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l "Welcome to Tikal Park, tours, lodging and transportation". Tikal Park.
- ^ Martin & Grube 2008, p.26.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Martin & Grube 2008, p.37.
- ^ Guenter, Stanley Paul (2014). "Dating Stela 26 of Tikal". The PARI Journal. Ancient Cultures Institute. 14 (3): 13–17.
- ^ Martin & Grube 2008, p.39.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d Martin & Grube 2000, p.178.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Martin & Grube 2000, p.180. Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.473.
- ^ Martin & Grube 2000, p.180.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Martin & Grube 2000, p.186.
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Martin & Grube 2000, p.186. Sharer & Traxler 2006, p.476.
- ^ Kelly 2001
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Martin & Grube 2000, p. 118
- ^ Belyev, D.D.; Safronov, А. В. "Правители Яшчилана" (in Russian). «МесоАмерика.Ru». Archived from the original on 2013-04-17. Retrieved 2012-11-02.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d "Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions". www.peabody.harvard.edu.
- ^ He was probably the third and not the second ruler of that name in Yaxchilan.
- ^ Chronicle of the Maya Kings and Queens by Simon Martin and Nikolai Grube
- ^ The Period-Ending Stelae of Yaxchilán
- ^ He was probably the fourth and not the third ruler of that name in Yaxchilan.
- ^ Sharer and Traxler 2006, p. 688.
Further reading[]
- Lucero, Lisa Joyce (2006). Water and Ritual: The Rise and Fall of Classic Maya Rulers. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0292709994. OCLC 61731425.
- Tiesler, Vera and Andrea Cucina (2006). Janaabʼ Pakal of Palenque: Reconstructing the Life and Death of a Maya Ruler. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-2510-2. OCLC 62593473.
- Prager C. Die Inschriften von Pusilha: Epigraphische Analyse und Rekonstruktion der Geschichte einer klassischen Maya-Stätte. Unpublished M.A. Thesis. Bonn: Institut für Altamerikanistik und Ethnologie, Universität Bonn, 2002 P. 220
- Prager C., Volta B., Braswell G. The Dynastic History and Archaeology of Pusilha, Belize // The Maya and their Central American Neighbors: Settlement Patterns, Architecture, Hieroglyphic Texts, and Ceramics / Ed. by G. Braswell. — London and New York: Routledge, 2014. — P. 272–281.
- Maya rulers