Pakawan languages
 | This article does not cite any sources. (June 2019) |
| Pakawan | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | Rio Grande Valley |
| Linguistic classification | Hokan ?
|
| Subdivisions |
|
| Glottolog | None |
The Pakawan languages were a small language family spoken in what is today northern Mexico and southern Texas. All Pakawan languages are today extinct.
Classification[]
Five clear Pakawan languages are attested: Coahuilteco, Cotoname, Comecrudo, Garza and Mamulique. The first three were first proposed to be related by John Wesley Powell in 1891, in a grouping then called Coahuiltecan. Goddard (1979) groups the latter three in a Comecrudan family while considering the others language isolates. The current composition and the present name "Pakawan" are due to Manaster Ramer (1996).
The term Coahuiltecan languages today refers to a slightly expanded and less securely established grouping. Most Pakawan languages have at times been included also in the much larger and highly hypothetical Hokan "stock".
Common vocabulary[]
The following word comparisons are given by Manaster Ramer (1996):
| Coahuilteco | Comecrudo | Cotoname | Karankawa | tentative reconstruction |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| axtē 'two' |
ale-kueten 'two' |
#al-, #axte 'two' | ||
| '' |
#ali 'ear' | |||
| uxualʼ 'heaven' |
apel 'sky, heaven, clouds' |
#apel' 'sky' | ||
| '' |
#axə 'juice, water' | |||
| '' |
#dem 'salt' | |||
| xāi 'to be extinguished, to come to an end' |
kai 'to eat' |
#kai 'to eat up, consume' | ||
| axām 'not' |
kam 'no' |
#kam 'no(t)' | ||
| hām 'to eat' |
kam 'to eat' |
hahame, xaxame 'to eat; food' |
#kam 'to eat, drink' | |
| '' |
#kamkam 'body of water' | |||
| xasal 'heart' |
kayasel 'heart' |
#kayasel 'heart' | ||
| pe=kĕwek 'low (of water)' |
xuăxe 'low (of water)' |
#k(a)waka 'low (of water)' | ||
| kemen 'vein' |
kemma 'bow' |
#keme(n) 'sinew, vein' | ||
| pa=kna(x) 'high, big' |
kenex 'good' |
#kenex 'good, big' | ||
| '' |
#ketekawi 'sun, star' | |||
| talōm 'fire' |
klewem, klewen, len |
#klewem 'fire' | ||
| '' |
#knem 'breast' | |||
| kuas |
kial |
#kual 'blood' | ||
| kuan 'to go' |
kio; kie 'to go'; 'to come' |
#kuV- 'to go, come' | ||
| gnax, na 'man' |
xuainaxe 'man' |
#kwainaxə 'man' | ||
| '' |
kuak 'reed, cane; arrow' |
ka-u, kau 'reed; arrow' |
#kwak 'reed' | |
| pe=kla 'to suck' |
huäxle 'to suck' |
#kwa(x/k?)la 'to suck' | ||
| kʼāu 'to marry' |
kuau, kwai 'married' |
#k'aw 'to marry' | ||
| '' |
wax 'belly' |
kox 'belly' |
#k'wax 'belly' | |
| tšum 'night, evening' |
lesum, lesom 'evening' |
#lesum 'evening' | ||
| '' |
#lel 'buttock, leg' | |||
| '' |
#lot 'arm' | |||
| '' |
#makə 'to give' | |||
| masõ 'to give up, abandon, desert, leave' |
mel, pa=mesai 'to fall' |
#maɬ- 'to fall' | ||
| māux 'hand' |
mapi 'hand' |
miapa 'wing' |
#mapi 'hand' | |
| pa=msol, pa=msul 'red' |
msae 'red' |
#msa'ol 'red' | ||
| el-pau 'to kneel down, sink or sit down' |
pawe 'to sit' |
#pawə 'to sit' | ||
| pilʼ 'one' |
pe-kueten 'one' |
#pil' 'one' | ||
| ānua 'moon' |
kan 'moon' |
#q'an 'moon' | ||
| '' |
#sayex 'to want' | |||
| sel 'straw' |
suau 'grass, tobacco; to smoke' |
#sel 'grass' | ||
| pa=kahuai, -kawai 'to write, paint; paper' |
thawe 'painted (on body, face)' |
#tkawai 'paint' | ||
| tʼāhaka, tʼāxakan 'what' |
tete 'how, what, why' |
*tit 'what' |
#t'ete- 'what' | |
| tʼil 'day' |
al 'sun' |
o 'sun' |
#t'al 'sun' | |
| xop 'far, distant' |
huanpa, xuanpa 'far' |
#xwanpa 'far' | ||
| '' |
#ya'ex 'nose' | |||
| yēwal 'to bewitch' |
yamel, yamis 'devil' |
#yameɬ 'evil spirit' | ||
| na- 'my, me' |
na 'I' |
na 'I' |
||
| mai- '2PS subject prefix' |
emnã 'you (sg.)' |
*men 'you (sg.)' |
||
| pamawau |
||||
| la-ak 'goose' |
krak 'goose' |
|||
| kol 'crane' |
karakor 'crane' |
|||
| ketuau 'dog' |
kowá-u 'dog' |
|||
| kiextuén 'rabbit' |
kiáx̣nem 'rabbit' |
|||
| pa=kwessom 'orphan' |
kuwosam 'small, little; boy, girl' |
|||
| malāux 'male sexual organs' |
melkuai 'female sexual organs' |
|||
| xūm 'to die' |
kamau 'to kill' |
|||
| tzin 'I' |
yen 'I' |
|||
| tzōtz 'chest' |
yeso knem 'to nurse' |
|||
| *tšei 'to hear' |
ye 'to hear' |
|||
| tilʼ 'posterior, anus' |
alel; (al)el 'leg'; 'buttocks, backsides, bottom' |
|||
| tām 'woman's breast' |
dom 'breast' |
|||
| mās 'to look, observe' |
max, ma, mahe 'to see' |
|||
| kuāx(ai) 'to suffer' |
kayau 'ache, sore' |
|||
| '' |
'' |
The following sound changes and correspondences should be noted:
- Vocalization of word-final *l in Cotoname: 'sun', 'straw', red'
- Lenition of *p to /xw/ in Coahuilteco between vowels: #apel', #mapi
- Syncope of
- Apocope of final e (perhaps /ə/) in Comecrudo: 'man', 'low [water]', 'to kneel'.
- /k/, /kw/ in other languages correspond to /x/, /xw/ in Cotoname, when before /a/ ('man', 'low [water]', 'to eat', 'to suck', 'to write'), as well as in Coahuilteco, when before any low vowel (__examples).
- /kiV/ in Comecrudo corresponds to /kuV/ in Coahuilteco: 'blood', 'to go'
- s ~ l (perhaps indicating a lateral fricative /ɬ/) in Comecrudo corresponds to s in Coahuilteco: Comecrudo 'blood', 'devil', 'to fall'.
- Initial y in Comecrudo corresponds to /ts/ in Coahuilteco: I, chest, to hear
Literature[]
- Manaster Ramer, Alexis. 1996. Sapir's Classifications: Coahuiltecan. Anthropological Linguistics 38/1, 1–38.
- Sapir, Edward. 1920. The Hokan and Coahuiltecan languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 1 (4), 280-290.
- Swanton, John R. (1915). Linguistic position of the tribes of southern Texas and northeastern Mexico. American Anthropologist, 17, 17–40.
Categories:
- Pakawan languages
- Coahuiltecan languages
- Proposed language families
- Indigenous languages of Mexico
- Indigenous languages of the Southwestern United States
- Indigenous languages of the North American Southwest