Yurok language

Yurok
Pueleekla’
Instruction teaching Yurok with the Yurok Language Program
Native to	United States
Region	Northwestern California
Ethnicity	Yurok
Extinct	26 March 2013, with the death of Archie Thompson[1]
Revival	language revival in progress; 350 with some knowledge, 35 fluent L2 speakers[1] as of 2020
Language family	Algic Yurok
Writing system	Latin
Language codes
ISO 639-3	yur
Glottolog	yuro1248
ELP	Yurok
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Yurok (also Chillula, Mita, Pekwan, Rikwa, Sugon, Weitspek, Weitspekan) is an Algic language.^[2] It is the traditional language of the Yurok people of Del Norte County and Humboldt County on the far north coast of California, most of whom now speak English. The last native speaker died in 2013.^[1] As of 2012, Yurok language classes were taught to high school students, and other revitalization efforts were expected to increase the population of speakers.^[3]

The standard reference on the Yurok language grammar is by R. H. Robins (1958).^[4]

Name[]

Concerning the etymology of "Yurok" (AKA Weitspekan), this below is from Campbell (1997):

Yurok is from Karuk yúruk meaning literally 'downriver'. The Yurok traditional name for themselves is Puliklah (Hinton 1994:157), from pulik 'downstream' + -la 'people of', thus equivalent in meaning to the Karuk name by which they came to be known in English (Victor Golla, personal communication).(Campbell 1997:401, notes #131 & 132)

History[]

Decline of the language began during the California Gold Rush, due to the influx of new settlers and the diseases they brought with them. Native American boarding schools initiated by the United States government with the intent of incorporating the native populations of America into mainstream American society increased the rate of decline of the language.^[5]

Current status[]

The program to revive Yurok has been lauded as the most successful language revitalization program in California.^[6] As of 2014, there are six schools in Northern California that teach Yurok - four high schools and two elementary schools. Rick Jordan, principal of Eureka High School, one of the schools with a Yurok Language Program, remarks on the impact that schools can have on the vitality of a language, "A hundred years ago, it was our organizations that were beating the language out of folks, and now we're trying to re-instill it - a little piece of something that is much larger than us".^[7]

The last known native, active speaker of Yurok, Archie Thompson, died March 26, 2013. "He was also the last of about 20 elders who helped revitalize the language over the last few decades, after academics in the 1990s predicted it would be extinct by 2010. He made recordings of the language that were archived by UC Berkeley linguists and the tribe, spent hours helping to teach Yurok in community and school classrooms, and welcomed apprentice speakers to probe his knowledge."^[1]

Linguists at UC Berkeley began the Yurok Language Project in 2001. Professor Andrew Garrett and Dr. Juliette Blevins collaborated with tribal elders on a Yurok dictionary that has been hailed as a national model.^[6] The Yurok Language Project has gone much more in depth than just a printed lexicon, however. The dictionary is available online and fully searchable. It is also possible to search an audio dictionary - a repository of audio clips of words and short phrases. For a more in depth study, there is a database of compiled texts where words and phrases can be viewed as part of a larger context.^[8]

As of February 2013, there are over 300 basic Yurok speakers, 60 with intermediate skills, 37 who are advanced, and 17 who are considered conversationally fluent.^[6] As of 2014, nine people are certified to teach Yurok in schools. Since Yurok, like many other Native American languages, uses a master-apprentice system to train up speakers in the language, having even nine certified teachers would not be possible without a piece of legislation passed in 2009 in the state of California that allows indigenous tribes the power to appoint their own language teachers.^[7]

Phonology[]

Vowels[]

Vowels are as follows:^[9][10]

	Front	Central	Back
High	i iː		u uː
Mid	e	ɚ ɚː	ɔ ɔː
Low		a aː

Consonants[]

Consonants are as follows:^[11]

		Bilabial	Alveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar		Glottal
						plain	labialized
Stop/ Affricate	plain	p	t		t͡ʃ	k	kʷ	ʔ
	ejective	pʼ	tʼ		t͡ʃʼ	kʼ	kʷʼ
Fricative	plain		ɬ	ʂ	ʃ	x		h
	voiced					ɣ
Nasal	plain	m	n
	glottalized	ˀm	ˀn
Approximant	plain		l	ɻ	j		w
	glottalized		ˀl	ˀɻ	ˀj		ˀw

Notable is the lack of plain /s/.

Yurok has an anticipatory vowel harmony system where underlying non-high vowels /a/, /e/, and /ɔ/ are realized as [ɚ] if they precede an /ɚ/.^[12]

The glottalized approximants /ˀl ˀɻ ˀj ˀw/ may be realized as creaky voice on the preceding vowel, a preceding glottal stop, or both. They are often devoiced when they occur at the end of a word.^{[citation needed]}

Yurok has front-, central-, and back-closing diphthongs. The second element of the diphthongs is considered a consonant or semivowel. This is because Yurok diphthongs are falling diphthongs and behave similarly to nasal and approximates following a vowel and preceding a pause or voiceless non-glottalized consonant.^[4]

All Yurok Syllables begin with a consonant and contain at least one vowel. Here are some examples of the different kinds of syllable structure:^[4]

CV	ki	will, can
CV:	hoː	to go
CVC	kuʂ	when? how?
CV:C	kiːɬ	redwood tree
CVCC	mekʷt͜ʃ	snail
CVCCC	taʔanojʔɬ	it is hot (weather)
CV:CC	hoːkʷʼt͜ʃʼ	he gambles
CV:CCC	noːjt͜ʃʼkʷ	he eats as a guest
CCV	t͜ʃpi	only
CCV:	ploːlikin	wide
CCVC	ɬkeɬ	earth
CCV:C	t͜ʃpaːk	late
CCVCC	plaʔʂ	stick for measuring net meshes
CCV:CC	ɬkoːʔm	they take
CCVC	ɬkjoɻkʷekʼ	I look
CCVCCC	t͜ʃkʷaʔɻkʼ	near
CV:VC	ʂoːol	yew
CCV:V	knuːu	hawk

V:V can only be /oːo/ or /uːu/ and is signaled by a change in pitch between the vowels.

Morphology[]

Yurok morphological processes include prefixation, infixation, inflection, vowel harmony, ablaut, consonantal alternation,^{[clarification needed]} and reduplication.^[4]

Prefixation and infixation occur in nominals and verbals, and occasionally in other classes, although infixation occurs most frequently in verbals.

Vowel harmony occurs for prefixes, infixes, and inflections, depending on the vocalic and consonantal structure of the word stem. Internal vocalic alternation involves three alternating pairs: /e/~/i/, /e/~/iʔi/, /e/~/u/.

Reduplication occurs mostly on verb stems but occasionally for nouns and can connote repetition, plurality, etc. Reduplication occurs on the first syllable, and sometimes a part of the second syllable:

Stem		Reduplicated form
Verbs
kelomen	to turn (trans.)	kekelomen	to turn several things
ketʼul	there is a lake	ketʼketʼul	there is a series of lakes
kneweʔlon	to be long	kokoneweʔlon	to be long (of things)
ɬkɻʔmɻkɬkin	to tie a knot.	ɬkɻʔmɬkɻʔmɻkɻɬkin	to tie up in knots
ʂjaːɬk	to kick	ʂjaʔʂjaːɬk	to kick repeatedly
tekʷʂ	to cut	tekʷtekʷʂ	to cut up
tikʷohʂ	to break (trans.)	tikʷtikʷohʂ	to break in pieces
Nouns
mɻkʷɻɬ	peak	mɻkʷɻmɻkʷɻɬ	series of peaks
ʂlekʷoh	shirt	ʂlekʷʂlekʷ	clothes

Classifications[]

Numerals and adjectives can be classified according to the noun grammatically associated with them.^[13]

Numerals	Common root frame: /n - hks-/
Human beings	/nahkseyl/
Animals and birds	/nrhksrʔrʔy/
Round things	/nrhksrʔrʔy/
Tools	/nahksoh/
Plants other than trees	/nahksek'woʔn/
Trees and sticks	/nahkseʔr/
Body parts and clothes	/nahkseʔn/
Long things	/nahksek'/
Flat things	/nahksok's/
Houses	/nahkseʔli/
Boats	/nahksey/
Days	/nahksemoyt/
Arm's lengths (depth measurements)	/nahksemrys/
Finger joint lengths (length measurement of dentalium shells)	/nahksepir/
Times	/nahksemi/

Adjectives	(to be) red	(to be) big
Human beings	/prkaryrʔry(-)/	/peloy-/
Animals and birds	/prkryrʔry(-)/	/plrʔry-/
Round things	/prkryrh/	/ploh/, /plohkeloy-/
Tools	/pekoyoh/	/peloy-/
Plants other than trees	/pekoyoh/	/ploh/, /plohkeloy-/
Trees and sticks	/pekoyeʔr/	/peloy-/, /plep-/
Body parts and clothes	/pekoyoh/	/plep-/, /plohkeloy-/
Long things	/pekoyoh/	/plep-/
Flat things	/pekoyoks-/	/ploks-/
Houses	/pekoyoh/	/pleʔloy-/
Boats	/pekoyoh/	/pleyteloy-/
Water	/pekoyop-/	---

Tense and aspect[]

Tense - Yurok has no way to differentiate tense through verbal inflection. Past, present and future may be inferred through both linguistic and nonlinguistic context.

Aspect - Aspect in Yurok is indicated by preverbal particles. These occur either directly or indirectly before a verb. These can combine with verbs and other particles to indicate time and many other aspects.

Some preverbal particles include: ho (past time); kic (past but with ongoing effects); wo (past after a negative, or in "unreal conditions"); ?ap (past with the implication of starting some action).^[14]

Basic syntax[]

The most common form of sentence structure consists of a Nominal + Verbal. Indeed, most other, seemingly more complex sentence structures can be viewed as expanding on this fundamental type.^[15]

Sentences can also be equational, consisting of two nominals or nominal groups:

Sentences can also be composed of one or more verbals without nominals as explicit arguments.

The same is true for nominals and nominal groups, which can stand alone as complete sentences, following a similar pattern to the equational sentences already mentioned.

Complex sentences are formed along similar principles to these, but with expanded verbals or nominals, or verbals and/or nominals connected by coordinators.

Word order is sometimes used to distinguish between the categories of subject and object.

However, if the morphological inflections are sufficiently unambiguous, it is not necessary to maintain a strict word order.

In the sentences composed of a subject and a verb, the two are often interchangeable.

Writing[]

As of 2020, Yurok is written in the New Yurok Alphabet, using Latin characters. Previously, Yurok was written in the Yurok Unifon; some books cited in the Yurok Language Project contain Yurok written in the unifon, though due to practicality in writing, typing, and reading, the Latin characters are now preferred. Currently, there is a spelling reform occurring to streamline the spelling of words; thus, some letters may differ between spellings. Currently, this is the alphabet as taught at various schools.

New Yurok Alphabet

A (as in lap-sew)	Aa (as in aa-wok)	Aw (as in tee'-naw)	Ay/Aiy (as in aiy'-ye-kweee. Spelling is currently being reformed).	Ch (as in chee-mos)
Ch' (as in ch'-ee-shah)	E (as in ne-chek)	Ee (as in chee-nos)	Eee (as in cheeek)	Er (as in er-plers
Err (as in errhl-ker)	Ery (as in cher'-ery)	Erw (as in mer-terw)	Ew (as in pop-sew)	Ey (as in ey-lekw)
Eyr (as in neyr-es)	G (as in pey-gerk)	H (as in herhl-ker)	Hl (as in hlkehl)	K (as in ne'-kue-chos)
K' (as in k'-ooy)	Kw (as in kwerhl)	L (as in lo-chom')	M (as in mey-wo)	N (as in neyp-sech)
O (as in ohl-kuem)	Oo (as in oohl)	Ow (as in kow-wey)	Owr (as in mey-wee-mowr)	Oy (as in koy-poh)
P (as in ple-tew)	P' (as in plop')	R (as in rek'-woy)	S (as in sa-'ahl)	Sh (as in pre-go-neesh)
T (as in te-seer)	T' (as in t'ot-'ohl)	Ue (as in wo-nue)	Uue (as in chuue')	Uy (as in ne-puy)
W (as in wo-news-le-pah)	X (as in 'wa-'a-lox)	Y (as in ye-gom)	' (as in chpok-sek')

Some books have been written partially in Yurok. One such example is the graphic novel ,^[16] written by .^[17] The Yurok text in was translated by Yurok language teacher James Gensaw, and the graphic novel was illustrated by Rahsan Ekedal.

References[]

Bibliography[]

• Blevins, Juliette (2003). "The phonology of Yurok glottalized sonorants: Segmental fission under syllabification". International Journal of American Linguistics. 69 (4): 371–396. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.494.4389. doi:10.1086/382738. S2CID 14886779.
• Atherton, Kelley. "Back from the Brink: Learning the Yurok Language". The Daily Triplicate. Published 16 October 2010. Accessed 30 April 2012.
• Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Dixon, Roland; & Kroeber, Alfred L. (1913). New linguistic families in California. American Anthropologist, 5, 1-26.
• Goddard, Ives. (1975). Algonquian, Wiyot, and Yurok: Proving a distant genetic relationship. In M. D. Kinkade, K. L. Hale, & O. Werner (Eds.), Linguistics and anthropology in honor of C. F. Voegelin (pp. 249–262). Lisse: Peter de Ridder Press.
• Goddard, Ives. (1979). Comparative Algonquian. In L. Campbell & M. Mithun (Eds.), The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment (pp. 70–132). Austin: University of Texas Press.
• Goddard, Ives. (1990). Algonquian linguistic change and reconstruction. In P. Baldi (Ed.), Linguistic change and reconstruction methodology (pp. 99–114). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
• Golla, Victor. (2011). California Indian Languages. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26667-4
• Haas, Mary R. (1958). Algonkian-Ritwan: The end of a controversy. International Journal of American Linguistics, 24, 159-173.
• Hinton, Leanne (1994). Flutes of fire: Essays on Californian Indian languages. Berkeley: Heyday Books.
• Michelson, Truman (1914). "Two alleged Algonquian languages of California". American Anthropologist. 16 (2): 361–367. doi:10.1525/aa.1914.16.2.02a00150. JSTOR 659619.
• Michelson, Truman. 1915. Rejoinder (to Edward Sapir). American Anthropologist, 17, 4-8.
• Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
• Robins, Robert H. 1958. The Yurok Language: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon. University of California Publications in Linguistics 15.
• Sapir, Edward (1913). "Wiyot and Yurok, Algonkin languages of California". American Anthropologist. 15 (4): 617–646. doi:10.1525/aa.1913.15.4.02a00040. JSTOR 659722.
• Sapir, Edward (1915a). "Algonkin languages of California: A reply". American Anthropologist. 17 (1): 188–198. doi:10.1525/aa.1915.17.1.02a00270. JSTOR 660169.
• Sapir, Edward. (1915)b. Epilogue. American Anthropologist, 17, 198.

External links[]

Yurok language test of Wikipedia at Wikimedia Incubator

• Yurok Tribe Language Project
• Yurok Language Project at the University of California, Berkeley, with sound files and a searchable dictionary
• Yurok language overview at the Survey of California and Other Indian Languages
• OLAC resources in and about the Yurok language
• Yurok language resources at the California Language Archive
• "Yurok Swadesh List". Retrieved August 26, 2012.
• "Yurok Language Program" Youtube channel, run by a fluent teacher