Permeability (electromagnetism)

Simplified comparison of permeabilities for: ferromagnets (μ_f), paramagnets (μ_p), free space (μ₀) and diamagnets (μ_d)

In electromagnetism, permeability is the measure of magnetization that a material obtains in response to an applied magnetic field. Permeability is typically represented by the (italicized) Greek letter μ. The term was coined in September 1885 by Oliver Heaviside. The reciprocal of permeability is magnetic reluctivity.

In SI units, permeability is measured in henries per meter (H/m), or equivalently in newtons per ampere squared (N/A²). The permeability constant μ₀, also known as the magnetic constant or the permeability of free space, is the proportionality between magnetic induction and magnetizing force when forming a magnetic field in a classical vacuum.

A closely related property of materials is magnetic susceptibility, which is a dimensionless proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of a material in response to an applied magnetic field.

Explanation[]

In electromagnetism, the auxiliary magnetic field H represents how a magnetic field B influences the organization of magnetic dipoles in a given medium, including dipole migration and magnetic dipole reorientation. Its relation to permeability is

\mathbf {B} =\mu \mathbf {H}

where the permeability, μ, is a scalar if the medium is isotropic or a second rank tensor for an anisotropic medium.

In general, permeability is not a constant, as it can vary with the position in the medium, the frequency of the applied magnetic field, humidity, temperature, and other parameters. In a nonlinear medium, the permeability can depend on the strength of the magnetic field. Permeability as a function of frequency can take on real or complex values. In ferromagnetic materials, the relationship between B and H exhibits both non-linearity and hysteresis: B is not a single-valued function of H,^[1] but depends also on the history of the material. For these materials, it is sometimes useful to consider the incremental permeability defined as

\Delta \mathbf {B} =\mu _{\Delta }\Delta \mathbf {H} .

This definition is useful in local linearizations of non-linear material behaviour, for example in a Newton–Raphson iterative solution scheme that computes the changing saturation of a magnetic circuit.

Permeability is the inductance per unit length. In SI units, permeability is measured in henries per metre (H/m = J/(A²⋅m) = N/A²). The auxiliary magnetic field H has dimensions current per unit length and is measured in units of amperes per metre (A/m). The product μH thus has dimensions inductance times current per unit area (H⋅A/m²). But inductance is magnetic flux per unit current, so the product has dimensions magnetic flux per unit area, that is, magnetic flux density. This is the magnetic field B, which is measured in webers (volt-seconds) per square-metre (V⋅s/m²), or teslas (T).

B is related to the Lorentz force on a moving charge q:

\mathbf {F} =q(\mathbf {E} +\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} ).

The charge q is given in coulombs (C), the velocity v in meters per second (m/s), so that the force F is in newtons (N):

[q\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} ]=\mathrm {C\cdot {\dfrac {m}{s}}\cdot {\dfrac {V\cdot s}{m^{2}}}} =\mathrm {\dfrac {C\cdot (J/C)}{m}} =\mathrm {{\dfrac {J}{m}}=N}

H is related to the magnetic dipole density. A magnetic dipole is a closed circulation of electric current. The dipole moment has dimensions current times area, units ampere square-metre (A⋅m²), and magnitude equal to the current around the loop times the area of the loop.^[2] The H field at a distance from a dipole has magnitude proportional to the dipole moment divided by distance cubed,^[3] which has dimensions current per unit length.

Relative permeability and magnetic susceptibility []

Relative permeability, denoted by the symbol $\mu _{\mathrm {r} }$ , is the ratio of the permeability of a specific medium to the permeability of free space μ₀:

\mu _{\mathrm {r} }={\frac {\mu }{\mu _{0}}},

where $\mu _{0}\approx$ 4 $π$ × 10⁻⁷ H/m is the magnetic permeability of free space. In terms of relative permeability, the magnetic susceptibility is

\chi _{m}=\mu _{r}-1.

The number χ_m is a dimensionless quantity, sometimes called volumetric or bulk susceptibility, to distinguish it from χ_p (magnetic mass or specific susceptibility) and χ_M (molar or molar mass susceptibility).

Diamagnetism[]

Diamagnetism is the property of an object which causes it to create a magnetic field in opposition of an externally applied magnetic field, thus causing a repulsive effect. Specifically, an external magnetic field alters the orbital velocity of electrons around their nuclei, thus changing the magnetic dipole moment in the direction opposing the external field. Diamagnets are materials with a magnetic permeability less than μ₀ (a relative permeability less than 1).

Consequently, diamagnetism is a form of magnetism that a substance exhibits only in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field. It is generally a quite weak effect in most materials, although superconductors exhibit a strong effect.

Paramagnetism[]

Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism which occurs only in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials are attracted to magnetic fields, hence have a relative magnetic permeability greater than one (or, equivalently, a positive magnetic susceptibility).

The magnetic moment induced by the applied field is linear in the field strength and rather weak. It typically requires a sensitive analytical balance to detect the effect. Unlike ferromagnets, paramagnets do not retain any magnetization in the absence of an externally applied magnetic field, because thermal motion causes the spins to become randomly oriented without it. Thus the total magnetization will drop to zero when the applied field is removed. Even in the presence of the field, there is only a small induced magnetization because only a small fraction of the spins will be oriented by the field. This fraction is proportional to the field strength and this explains the linear dependency. The attraction experienced by ferromagnets is non-linear and much stronger so that it is easily observed, for instance, in magnets on one's refrigerator.

Gyromagnetism[]

For gyromagnetic media (see Faraday rotation) the magnetic permeability response to an alternating electromagnetic field in the microwave frequency domain is treated as a non-diagonal tensor expressed by:^[4]

{\begin{aligned}\mathbf {B} (\omega )&={\begin{vmatrix}\mu _{1}&-i\mu _{2}&0\\i\mu _{2}&\mu _{1}&0\\0&0&\mu _{z}\end{vmatrix}}\mathbf {H} (\omega )\end{aligned}}

Values for some common materials[]

The following table should be used with caution as the permeability of ferromagnetic materials varies greatly with field strength. For example, 4% Si steel has an initial relative permeability (at or near 0 T) of 2,000 and a maximum of 35,000^[5] and, indeed, the relative permeability of any material at a sufficiently high field strength trends toward 1 (at magnetic saturation).

Magnetic susceptibility and permeability data for selected materials
Medium	Susceptibility, volumetric, SI, χ_m	Permeability, μ (H/m)	Relative permeability, max., μ/μ₀	Magnetic field	Frequency, max.
Metglas 2714A (annealed)		1.26×10⁰	1000000^[6]	At 0.5 T	100 kHz
Iron (99.95% pure Fe annealed in H)		2.5×10⁻¹	200000^[7]
Permalloy	8000	1.25×10⁻¹	100000^[8]	At 0.002 T
NANOPERM®		1.0×10⁻¹	80000^[9]	At 0.5 T	10 kHz
Mu-metal		6.3×10⁻²	50000^[10]
Mu-metal		2.5×10⁻²	20000^[11]	At 0.002 T
Cobalt-iron (high permeability strip material)		2.3×10⁻²	18000^[12]
Iron (99.8% pure)		6.3×10⁻³	5000^[7]
Electrical steel		5.0×10⁻³	4000^[11]^{[failed verification]}	At 0.002 T
Ferritic stainless steel (annealed)		1.26×10⁻³ – 2.26×10⁻³	1000 – 1800^[13]
Martensitic stainless steel (annealed)		9.42×10⁻⁴ – 1.19×10⁻³	750 – 950^[13]
Ferrite (manganese zinc)		4.4×10⁻⁴ – 2.51×10⁻²	350 – 20 000^[14]	At 0.25 mT	Approx. 100 Hz – 4 MHz
Ferrite (nickel zinc)		1.26×10⁻⁵ – 2.89×10⁻³	10 – 2300^[15]	At ≤ 0.25 mT	Approx. 1 kHz – 400 MHz^{[citation needed]}
Ferrite (magnesium manganese zinc)		4.4×10⁻⁴ – 6.28×10⁻⁴	350 - 500^[16]	At 0.25 mT
Ferrite (cobalt nickel zinc)		5.03×10⁻⁵ – 1.57×10⁻⁴	40 – 125^[17]	At 0.001 T	Approx. 2 MHz – 150 MHz
Mo-Fe-Ni powder compound (molypermalloy powder, MPP)		1.76×10⁻⁵ – 6.91×10⁻⁴	14 – 550^[18]		Approx. 50 Hz – 3 MHz
Nickel iron powder compound		1.76×10⁻⁵ – 2.01×10⁻⁴	14 – 160^[19]	At 0.001 T	Approx. 50 Hz – 2 MHz
Al-Si-Fe powder compound (Sendust)		1.76×10⁻⁵ – 2.01×10⁻⁴	14 – 160^[20]		Approx. 50 Hz – 5 MHz^[21]
Iron powder compound		1.76×10⁻⁵ – 1.26×10⁻⁴	14 – 100^[22]	At 0.001 T	Approx. 50 Hz – 220 MHz
Silicon iron powder compound		2.39×10⁻⁵ – 1.13×10⁻⁴	19 – 90^[23]^[24]		Approx. 50 Hz – 40 MHz
Carbonyl iron powder compound		5.03×10⁻⁶ – 4.4×10⁻⁵	4 – 35^[25]	At 0.001 T	Approx. 20 kHz – 500 MHz
Carbon steel		1.26×10⁻⁴	100^[11]	At 0.002 T
Nickel		1.26×10⁻⁴ – 7.54×10⁻⁴	100^[11] – 600	At 0.002 T
Martensitic stainless steel (hardened)		5.0×10⁻⁵ – 1.2×10⁻⁴	40 – 95^[13]
Austenitic stainless steel		1.260×10⁻⁶ – 8.8×10⁻⁶	1.003 – 1.05^[13]^[26]^{[note 1]}
Neodymium magnet		1.32×10⁻⁶	1.05^[27]
Platinum		1.256970×10⁻⁶	1.000265
Aluminum	2.22×10⁻⁵^[28]	1.256665×10⁻⁶	1.000022
Wood		1.25663760×10⁻⁶	1.00000043^[28]
Air		1.25663753×10⁻⁶	1.00000037^[29]
Concrete (dry)			1^[30]
Vacuum	0	4 $π$ × 10⁻⁷ (μ₀)	1, exactly^[31]
Hydrogen	−2.2×10⁻⁹^[28]	1.2566371×10⁻⁶	1.0000000
Teflon		1.2567×10⁻⁶^[11]	1.0000
Sapphire	−2.1×10⁻⁷	1.2566368×10⁻⁶	0.99999976
Copper	−6.4×10⁻⁶ or −9.2×10⁻⁶^[28]	1.256629×10⁻⁶	0.999994
Water	−8.0×10⁻⁶	1.256627×10⁻⁶	0.999992
Bismuth	−1.66×10⁻⁴	1.25643×10⁻⁶	0.999834
Pyrolytic carbon		1.256×10⁻⁶	0.9996
Superconductors	−1	0	0

Magnetisation curve for ferromagnets (and ferrimagnets) and corresponding permeability

A good magnetic core material must have high permeability.^[32]

For passive magnetic levitation a relative permeability below 1 is needed (corresponding to a negative susceptibility).

Permeability varies with a magnetic field. Values shown above are approximate and valid only at the magnetic fields shown. They are given for a zero frequency; in practice, the permeability is generally a function of the frequency. When the frequency is considered, the permeability can be complex, corresponding to the in-phase and out of phase response.

Complex permeability[]

A useful tool for dealing with high frequency magnetic effects is the complex permeability. While at low frequencies in a linear material the magnetic field and the auxiliary magnetic field are simply proportional to each other through some scalar permeability, at high frequencies these quantities will react to each other with some lag time.^[33] These fields can be written as phasors, such that

H=H_{0}e^{j\omega t}\qquad B=B_{0}e^{j\left(\omega t-\delta \right)}

where $\delta$ is the phase delay of $B$ from $H$ .

Understanding permeability as the ratio of the magnetic flux density to the magnetic field, the ratio of the phasors can be written and simplified as

\mu ={\frac {B}{H}}={\frac {B_{0}e^{j\left(\omega t-\delta \right)}}{H_{0}e^{j\omega t}}}={\frac {B_{0}}{H_{0}}}e^{-j\delta },

so that the permeability becomes a complex number.

By Euler's formula, the complex permeability can be translated from polar to rectangular form,

\mu ={\frac {B_{0}}{H_{0}}}\cos(\delta )-j{\frac {B_{0}}{H_{0}}}\sin(\delta )=\mu '-j\mu ''.

The ratio of the imaginary to the real part of the complex permeability is called the loss tangent,

\tan(\delta )={\frac {\mu ''}{\mu '}},

which provides a measure of how much power is lost in material versus how much is stored.

Notes[]

^ The permeability of austenitic stainless steel strongly depends on the history of mechanical strain applied to it, e.g. by cold working

References[]

^ Jackson (1975), p. 190
^ Jackson, John David (1975). Classical Electrodynamics (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-43132-9. p. 182 eqn. (5.57)
^ Jackson (1975) p. 182 eqn. (5.56)
^ Kales, M. L. (1953). "Modes in Wave Guides Containing Ferrites". Journal of Applied Physics. 24 (5): 604–608. Bibcode:1953JAP....24..604K. doi:10.1063/1.1721335.
^ G.W.C. Kaye & T.H. Laby, Table of Physical and Chemical Constants, 14th ed, Longman
^ ""Metglas Magnetic Alloy 2714A", Metglas". Metglas.com. Archived from the original on 2012-02-06. Retrieved 2011-11-08.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ""Magnetic Properties of Ferromagnetic Materials", Iron". C.R Nave Georgia State University. Retrieved 2013-12-01.
^ Jiles, David (1998). Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials. CRC Press. p. 354. ISBN 978-0-412-79860-3.
^ ""Typical material properties of NANOPERM", Magnetec" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-11-08.
^ "Nickel Alloys-Stainless Steels, Nickel Copper Alloys, Nickel Chromium Alloys, Low Expansion Alloys". Nickel-alloys.net. Retrieved 2011-11-08.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ""Relative Permeability", Hyperphysics". Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 2011-11-08.
^ ""Soft Magnetic Cobalt-Iron Alloys", Vacuumschmeltze" (PDF). www.vacuumschmeltze.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-05-23. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Carpenter Technology Corporation (2013). "Magnetic Properties of Stainless Steels". Carpenter Technology Corporation.
^ According to Ferroxcube (formerly Philips) Soft Ferrites data. https://www.ferroxcube.com/zh-CN/download/download/21
^ According to Siemens Matsushita SIFERRIT data. https://www.thierry-lequeu.fr/data/SIFERRIT.pdf
^ According to PRAMET Šumperk fonox data. https://www.doe.cz/wp-content/uploads/fonox.pdf
^ According to Ferronics Incorporated data. http://www.ferronics.com/catalog/ferronics_catalog.pdf
^ According to Magnetics MPP-molypermalloy powder data. https://www.mag-inc.com/Products/Powder-Cores/MPP-Cores
^ According to MMG IOM Limited High Flux data. http://www.mmgca.com/catalogue/MMG-Sailcrest.pdf
^ According to Micrometals-Arnold Sendust data. https://www.micrometalsarnoldpowdercores.com/products/materials/sendust
^ According to Micrometals-Arnold High Frequency Sendust data. https://www.micrometalsarnoldpowdercores.com/products/materials/sendust-high-frequency
^ "Micrometals Powder Core Solutions". micrometals.com. Retrieved 2019-08-17.
^ According to Magnetics XFlux data. https://www.mag-inc.com/Products/Powder-Cores/XFlux-Cores
^ "Micrometals Powder Core Solutions". micrometals.com. Retrieved 2019-08-18.
^ "Micrometals Powder Core Solutions". www.micrometals.com. Retrieved 2019-08-17.
^ British Stainless Steel Association (2000). "Magnetic Properties of Stainless Steel" (PDF). Stainless Steel Advisory Service.
^ Juha Pyrhönen; Tapani Jokinen; Valéria Hrabovcová (2009). Design of Rotating Electrical Machines. John Wiley and Sons. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-470-69516-6.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Richard A. Clarke. "Magnetic properties of materials, surrey.ac.uk". Ee.surrey.ac.uk. Retrieved 2011-11-08.
^ B. D. Cullity and C. D. Graham (2008), Introduction to Magnetic Materials, 2nd edition, 568 pp., p.16
^ NDT.net. "Determination of dielectric properties of insitu concrete at radar frequencies". Ndt.net. Retrieved 2011-11-08.
^ by definition
^ Dixon, L H (2001). "Magnetics Design 2 – Magnetic Core Characteristics" (PDF). Texas Instruments.
^ M. Getzlaff, Fundamentals of magnetism, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2008.

External links[]

Electromagnetism - a chapter from an online textbook
Permeability calculator
Relative Permeability
Soil Permeability Test
Magnetic Properties of Materials
RF Cafe's Conductor Bulk Resistivity & Skin Depths

[27] The permeability of austenitic stainless steel strongly depends on the history of mechanical strain applied to it, e.g. by cold working

[1] Jackson (1975), p. 190

[2] Jackson, John David (1975). Classical Electrodynamics (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-43132-9. p. 182 eqn. (5.57)

[3] Jackson (1975) p. 182 eqn. (5.56)

[4] Kales, M. L. (1953). "Modes in Wave Guides Containing Ferrites". Journal of Applied Physics. 24 (5): 604–608. Bibcode:1953JAP....24..604K. doi:10.1063/1.1721335.

[5] G.W.C. Kaye & T.H. Laby, Table of Physical and Chemical Constants, 14th ed, Longman

[Metglas-6] ""Metglas Magnetic Alloy 2714A", Metglas". Metglas.com. Archived from the original on 2012-02-06. Retrieved 2011-11-08.

[Iron-7] Jump up to: ^a ^b ""Magnetic Properties of Ferromagnetic Materials", Iron". C.R Nave Georgia State University. Retrieved 2013-12-01.

[Jiles-8] Jiles, David (1998). Introduction to Magnetism and Magnetic Materials. CRC Press. p. 354. ISBN 978-0-412-79860-3.

[Nanoperm-9] ""Typical material properties of NANOPERM", Magnetec" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-11-08.

[nickal-10] "Nickel Alloys-Stainless Steels, Nickel Copper Alloys, Nickel Chromium Alloys, Low Expansion Alloys". Nickel-alloys.net. Retrieved 2011-11-08.

[hyper-11] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ""Relative Permeability", Hyperphysics". Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 2011-11-08.

[vacuumschmeltze-12] ""Soft Magnetic Cobalt-Iron Alloys", Vacuumschmeltze" (PDF). www.vacuumschmeltze.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-05-23. Retrieved 2013-08-03.

[Carpenter-13] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Carpenter Technology Corporation (2013). "Magnetic Properties of Stainless Steels". Carpenter Technology Corporation.

[14] According to Ferroxcube (formerly Philips) Soft Ferrites data. https://www.ferroxcube.com/zh-CN/download/download/21

[15] According to Siemens Matsushita SIFERRIT data. https://www.thierry-lequeu.fr/data/SIFERRIT.pdf

[16] According to PRAMET Šumperk fonox data. https://www.doe.cz/wp-content/uploads/fonox.pdf

[17] According to Ferronics Incorporated data. http://www.ferronics.com/catalog/ferronics_catalog.pdf

[18] According to Magnetics MPP-molypermalloy powder data. https://www.mag-inc.com/Products/Powder-Cores/MPP-Cores

[19] According to MMG IOM Limited High Flux data. http://www.mmgca.com/catalogue/MMG-Sailcrest.pdf

[20] According to Micrometals-Arnold Sendust data. https://www.micrometalsarnoldpowdercores.com/products/materials/sendust

[21] According to Micrometals-Arnold High Frequency Sendust data. https://www.micrometalsarnoldpowdercores.com/products/materials/sendust-high-frequency

[22] "Micrometals Powder Core Solutions". micrometals.com. Retrieved 2019-08-17.

[23] According to Magnetics XFlux data. https://www.mag-inc.com/Products/Powder-Cores/XFlux-Cores

[24] "Micrometals Powder Core Solutions". micrometals.com. Retrieved 2019-08-18.

[25] "Micrometals Powder Core Solutions". www.micrometals.com. Retrieved 2019-08-17.

[SSAS-26] British Stainless Steel Association (2000). "Magnetic Properties of Stainless Steel" (PDF). Stainless Steel Advisory Service.

[28] Juha Pyrhönen; Tapani Jokinen; Valéria Hrabovcová (2009). Design of Rotating Electrical Machines. John Wiley and Sons. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-470-69516-6.

[clarke-29] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Richard A. Clarke. "Magnetic properties of materials, surrey.ac.uk". Ee.surrey.ac.uk. Retrieved 2011-11-08.

[Cullity2008-30] B. D. Cullity and C. D. Graham (2008), Introduction to Magnetic Materials, 2nd edition, 568 pp., p.16

[31] NDT.net. "Determination of dielectric properties of insitu concrete at radar frequencies". Ndt.net. Retrieved 2011-11-08.

[32] y definition

[33] Dixon, L H (2001). "Magnetics Design 2 – Magnetic Core Characteristics" (PDF). Texas Instruments.

[getzlaff-34] M. Getzlaff, Fundamentals of magnetism, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2008.

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