Reformed fundamentalism

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Reformed fundamentalism arose in some conservative Presbyterian, Reformed Baptist, and other Reformed churches, which agreed with the motives and aims of broader evangelical Protestant fundamentalism. The fundamentalism of the movement is defined by a rejection of liberal and modernist theology, and the legacy of The Fundamentals, published at the start of the twentieth century. The Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy, and the Downgrade Controversy in the United Kingdom, shaped reformed fundamentalism in the United States and United Kingdom. Reformed fundamentalists lay heavy emphasis on historic confessions of faith, such as the Westminster Confession of Faith, as well as uphold Princeton theology.^[1]

Some of the recent and better known leaders who have described themselves as both Calvinist and fundamentalist have been Carl McIntire of the American Bible Presbyterian Church, Thomas Todhunter Shields of Jarvis Street Baptist Church, D. James Kennedy of Coral Ridge Presbyterian Church, Ian Paisley of the Northern Irish Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster and J. Oliver Buswell of Wheaton College. Other evangelicals with connections to reformed fundamentalism would be J. Gresham Machen, Arthur Pink, Martyn Lloyd-Jones, J. I. Packer, John Stott, R. C. Sproul, and John F. MacArthur.

Those in the reformed fundamentalist tradition drew upon the lives and works of evangelical ministers, particularly from the Anglosphere. John Calvin, Martin Luther, Matthew Henry, John Gill, Charles Spurgeon, J. C. Ryle, John Wesley, George Whitefield, John Knox, Jonathan Edwards, John Bunyan, F. B. Meyer, and G. Campbell Morgan, were inspirations for McIntire, Paisley and others. In English reformed Baptist circles, the men who backed Spurgeon's stance against modernism, Archibald G. Brown, E. J. Poole-Connor and Thomas Spurgeon, have been esteemed, along with some men of the Plymouth Brethren.

The Scriptures[]

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Reformed fundamentalists believe in the inspiration (theopneustia) and preservation of all scripture. The forerunning debates in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries resulted in the formulation and clarification of the doctrine of the 'verbal plenary' inspiration of the scriptures, a doctrine differentiated from the doctrine of 'mechanical' inspiration.

The reformed fundamentalist view of inspiration, held by other Protestant denominations and churches, maintains that the individual backgrounds, personal traits, and literary styles of the writers and compilers were authentically theirs, but had been providentially prepared by God for use as His instrument in producing scripture. The words in the autographs (original writings that are considered without error or falsehood), as well as the concepts, were given by inspiration, an inspiration unable to be dissected into substance and form.^[2] For reformed fundamentalists, inspiration does not stop at the autographs . The translations of the Greek New Testament and Hebrew Old Testament are considered the inspired word of God to the extent that they are a close, accurate rendering of the scriptures. Wherever the English version of the testaments lies fairly within the confines of the original, the authority of the latest form is as great as that of the earliest. In other words, inspiration is not considered as 'limited to that portion which lay within the horizon of the original scribes' (C. H. Waller). Additionally, the evidence of inspiration is something revealed by the Holy Spirit only to the believer, who has been gifted the Spirit at salvation. Attempts to prove scripture by reason alone are considered mistaken, and rationalistic criticism (e.g. speculative redaction criticism) that violates the integrity of the doctrine of verbal plenary inspiration, is rejected accordingly.

Notable conservative defenses of verbal plenary inspiration:

• Theopneustia: The Plenary Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures, François Gaussen
• Inspiration and Interpretation, Dean Burgon
• The Authoritative Inspiration of Holy Scripture, as distinct from the Inspiration of its Human Authors, Charles Henry Waller
• God's Inspiration of the Scriptures, William Kelly

Bible translation and usage[]

Some discussion surrounding the dominant usage of an English translation exists, but largely centres on the New Testament. However, despite the common textual sources of the ''ben Hayyim-Bombergiana'' and modern Biblia Hebraica editions, namely the Ben Asher texts (the Leningrad Codex and Aleppo Codex), differences are observed. Into the twentieth century, the Daniel Bomberg 2nd edition was still a standard Masoretic Text, and is one of the most available Masoretic texts in the world, along with Max Letteris' edition.^[3] In 1972, a reprint of Bomberg's 1525 Venice edition (with an introduction by Moshe Goshen-Gottstein) was published in Jerusalem by Makor Publishing, and the Trinitarian Bible Society print the Ginsburg edition of the ben Hayyim-Bombergiana (also the Mikraot Gedolot) .

The fundamentalist discussion primarily concerns formal equivalence translations since dynamic equivalence translations (also known as "functional") and "optimal equivalence" translations are typically dismissed as too eisegetical and interpretive.

Early fundamentalists exalted the 1769 King James Version, and held that the Textus Receptus (TR) was reliable. It must be noted, the TR is now generally applied to the family of similar Byzantine-text Greek New Testaments, for example, the editions of Erasmus (first edition, Novum Instrumentum omne, 1516), Beza (first edition, Octavo, 1565) and Stephanus (notable third edition, Editio Regia, 1550). The editions published by Abraham and Bonaventure Elzivir, almost identical to the texts of Beza, became known as the Textus Receptus ('Received Text') due to a note in Heinsius' preface ('Therefore you have the text now received by all in which we give nothing altered or corrupt.'), but Textus Receptus has also been applied to the 1550 Stephanus edition.^[4] The 47 translators of the 1611 KJV used the New Testaments of Erasmus, Stephanus and Beza, yet augmented with the Vulgate, Tyndale, Geneva, Complutensian Polyglot, Coverdale, Bishops' and Matthew Bibles.^[5] Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the edition of the Greek text that lay behind the 1611 Authorised Version. Benjamin Blayney and the revisionists of the KJV in 1762 and 1769, made grammatical alterations to reflect changes in the English language but left the text materially unchanged, and Norton's New Cambridge Paragraph KJV is considered by some a modern counterpart to the Oxford edition.

Erasmus used Codex Basilensis and several other Byzantine manuscripts. Stephanus used the Codex Bezae as he prepared his New Testament, purportedly independently of Erasmus. Beza also used the Codez Bezae, from which it derives its name, and the text of Stephanus for his editions. Exceeding similarity exists between these New Testaments. F. H. A. Scrivener's work, Adversaria Critica Sacra: With a Short Explanatory Introduction, details the manuscript sources of the TR editions.

The publication of the New King James Version (1982) has been a minor development within fundamentalism. The NKJV like the 1769 Authorised Version uses the TR, but in translation removes older English words and detaches from some of the 'damnation language' and titles of Divinity. Unlike Authorised versions, the NKJV includes in the footnotes where the TR differs from other Greek NT texts (i.e. the 'Critical Text' (NU-Text) of Nestle & Aland and the United Bible Societies, and the 'Majority Text' (M-Text) of Hodges & Farstad's). The accommodation to include references to critical editions in the footnotes divides opinion. The NKJV is often used prudently in public teaching and preaching, with an awareness of congregational use of newer translations, but personal use of the Authorised version is often concurrently practised.^[6] A preference for the Authorised Version is distinct from KJV-Onlyism.

Fundamentalists recognising the wisdom of the 1611 translators, and the scholarly work of non-modernist scholars (e.g. Scrivener, Burgon, Spurgeon etc.), tend to favour a supplemented Textus Receptus. Necessary examination of manuscripts of similar character is seen by conservatives as preferable to altogether abandoning Byzantine priority and adopting a transmissionally-complex critical text. Contemporary academic defenses of Byzantine witness are Robinson and Pierpont's 'The Case for Byzantine Priority' and Robinson's 'New Testament Textual Criticism: The Case for Byzantine Priority.'

Some fundamentalists do use translations based upon the earliest extant manuscripts, such as the ESV and NASB (the NASB being very stylistically similar to the NKJV). Such translations are considered fair renderings of the critical text. Many will still affirm the stylistic distinction of the Authorised Version and the great effect it has had on the Church and history, despite preferring modern translations.^[7]

A considerable number of fundamentalists today do believe that the texts behind the Authorised versions are closer and extremely close representatives of the autographs.^[8] The reverence, commitment to scriptural inspiration and skill of 1611 translators is acknowledged. Finally, contemporary reformed fundamentalists firmly desire equitable discussion and unity, and condemn any unnecessary division.^[9] Fundamentalists see themselves as 'people of the Book,' and desire to know the incarnate Word (Jesus) more deeply through his written Word.

Principles of biblical interpretation[]

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• Prayer for illumination by Spirit
• Initial "plain reading"
• Christocentrism and typological interpretation
• Historical-grammatical method and appropriate consultation of the original languages (Hebrew, Greek, and Aramaic) through lexicons, grammars, concordances, and Hebrew and Greek testaments.
• Contextual grounding by searching in concentric circles (e.g. verse, paragraph, chapter, book, genre, testament etc.)
• The analogy of faith, or 'scripture interprets scripture' (scriptura sui ipsius interpres) for difficult passages^[10]
• The principle of non-contradiction^[11]
• The preference for the literal-historical interpretation over less concrete tropological, allegorical, and anagogical interpretations
• Sensitivity to literary genre (e.g. prophetic, poetic, apocalyptic, Gospel etc.)
• The mediation of scripture through secondary authority (e.g. tradition, experience etc. ) and the general rule of Vincent of Lérins, quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus creditum est ('what (is) always, what (is) everywhere, what (is) by everybody (believed)')
• Scripture as 'finitely plastic,' and not as a 'wax nose.'^[12]

Theology and doctrine[]

The teachings of the Protestant Reformers, Puritans and non-conformists/dissenters, evangelical Anglicans, classic fundamentalists (e.g. R. A. Torrey, A. C. Dixon, James Orr, James M. Gray, J. C. Massee) and those of Old Princeton (e.g. B. B. Warfield, Charles Hodge, Archibald A. Hodge, W. B. Greene Jr., Archibald Alexander), have shaped reformed fundamentalist theology. The tradition is as much a rejection of modernist theology and western liberal attitudes to life, as it is a strong re-affirmation of conservative evangelical and reformed identities. 'Scripturalism' and 'Bible Protestantism,' were commonly-used epithets to describe the tradition.

Evangelical and fundamentalist theology, are partially summarised below and the distinctives of reformed theology have been omitted below. However, covenantalism, TULIP, election, predestination and preordination, Kingdom theology, eternal security, and the sovereignty of God, are often precious tenets of faith for reformed fundamentalists. The covenantalism of reformed fundamentalism stands in contrast to the dispensationalism of wider Christian fundamentalism.

Fundamentalist convictions[]

• Christology – the pre-existence, supremacy and deity (Jn. 8. 38), co-equality and consubstantiality (with the Father and the Spirit) (Jn. 10.30), authentic and sinless humanity (2 Cor. 5. 21), virgin birth, incarnation (Jn. 1), ministry of miracles, substitutionary and expiatory death, bodily resurrection of Jesus, physical ascension of Jesus, exclusive mediatorial intercession and the visible, audible and bodily second coming of Jesus.^[13][2][14] The authority of Jesus Christ as not distinct or separate from the authority of God's written revelation, a revelation that includes Christ's Divine words; scripture is Christ's Word, and bears identical and complete authority.
• Christianity as supernatural. That is, God intervenes in human affairs, miracles happened (Egyptian plagues, parting of the Red Sea, healings, visions, the incarnation, bodily resurrection, preservation of individuals, upholding of the cosmic constants and laws of the universe etc.) and the reality of the supernatural kingdoms (kingdom of God, and the kingdom of darkness).^[15]
• The verbal plenary inspiration of the scriptures (2 Tim. 3. 16) and an inspiration, of the same substance but not form, of faithful (formal equivalence) translations. The original autographs were inspired, and apograph copies (when freed from copyist error) are equally inspired.^[15][16][2] God providentially prepared the individual backgrounds, personal traits, and literary styles of the biblical writers and superintended the process mysteriously, so that every word written was the exact word God wanted to be written, free from all error. Even the biblical writer/prophet's scriptural familiarity is providentially prepared. "Speculation into the “how” of inspiration is a prying into what is not revealed, and therefore unwise and unbecoming. We are not told how God inspired the writers of the scriptures. It is probable that none could know save those who were so energized" (William Kelly). As a result of adherence to the doctrine of verbal plenary inspiration, Bible apologetics have been published.
• The complete, periodically definite, and chief collective providential preservation (providentia extraordinaria) of the scriptures, as defined by the retention (in the libraries of manuscripts) of every inspired canonical word in the original languages that God intended for future generations: no single word, letter, accent, or character, in the autographs has been lost. Debate has been over which libraries preserve the Word. Faithful textual study has led to true textual recognition, thus diligent study renders the Christian's access to God's Word identical to what God's Word is ontologically. As God providentially entrusted the transmittance of His Word through human scribes, so too has God graced His elect with a practice of textual recognition, to gift them with a more intimate knowledge of the scriptures. The providential preservation of God's written word is considered a faith position, one that Christ held (Matt. 5.18), and is not disturbed by difficulties or human insufficiency, and where the sinner perceives ignorance over the preservation, Christ's omniscience is entreated and rested upon. "We add that the whole scripture entire, as given out from God, without any loss, is preserved in the Copies of the Originals yet remaining; What varieties there are among the Copies themselves shall be afterwards declared; in them all, we say, is every letter and Tittle of the Word" (John Owen, Of the Divine Original, Authority, Self-Evidencing Light, and Power of the Scriptures, p. 173-174). There is a logical link between the verbal plenary inspiration of the scriptures and the verbal plenary preservation of those words. An example of an institutional acknowledgement of verbal plenary preservation is that of the Trinitarian Bible Society, which advocates the Scrivener and ben Chayyim texts.^[17] Other scriptures that have been cited as proof texts of God's preservation of His written Word are Matt. 5.18, Matt. 24.35, John 10.35, and 1 Pet. 1.25. Chapter 1:8 of the Westminster Confession of Faith speaks of the scriptures as being 'by His singular care and providence, kept pure in all ages, [and] are therefore authentical.'^[18]
• The severity of sin and the need for living righteously before God, and a high view of the eternal righteous Law of God (Rom. 3. 31). This is voluntarily performed, borne of grace, and not of legalism.
• The practice of believers to contend against evil and the 'deeds of darkness' (Eph. 5.11). See the Church Militant. Christians are encouraged to hold their governments to righteous account.^[19]
• The historicity of the persons and events in the Book of Genesis (e.g. literal Adam and Eve created by fiat decree, Noahic deluge, Tower of Babel, the life of the patriarch Abraham etc.), and a general re-affirmation of the literal method of interpretation.^[16] Reformed covenantalism logically necessitates historical persons.

Conservative Evangelicalism[]

Pertaining to salvation and the gospel:

• Christocentric (a special emphasis upon Christ in preaching, interpretation and practice), and 'crucicentric' (a special emphasis on the atoning work of Christ on the cross)
• The perspicuity or clarity of scripture for salvation (2 Tim. 3. 15)
• The distinction of mankind from the rest of the created order, as mankind is created in 'the image [tselem] and likeness [demuth] of God' (Gen. 1. 27)^[15][14]
• The original sin and Fall of mankind (Gen. 3), and the subsequent universal sinfulness of all human persons^[15][2]
• Two eternal realities and destinies: the eternal life that is realised in the present by faith in Jesus Christ and that ends with the believer in the presence of the Lord after bodily death, and eternal death that is realised in the present through slavery to sin and spiritual blindness and that ends with the unbeliever being outside the presence of God after bodily death in hell. Eternal perdition is the default destination for all, and only the grace of God in Christ through faith can spare a sinner from just eternal punishment. Jesus Christ in Matthew 7:13-14 distinguishes between the 'broad way that leads to destruction,' and the 'narrow way that leads to life.'
• Christian exclusivism (also called 'Christian particularism') - salvation is in Christ alone and none other (Acts 4. 12). Jesus, as the Son of God, has unique access to God the Father, and so all persons who would be saved and reconciled to God must believe upon and surrender to Christ.
• Emphasis upon the prophetic fulfilment of the scriptures in Christ Jesus. For example, the Messianic Old Testament prophecies fulfilled in Jesus Christ (e.g. Psalm 22, Isaiah 53, Micah 5:2, etc.), and the fulfilled prophecies of Jesus (siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, emergence of false messiah-claimants, increase in earthquakes, persecution of believers, etc.)
• Regeneration by the Holy Spirit^[15]
• Salvation is achieved by receiving (by faith) the saving work of Christ, not by any works/deeds/effort (Tit. 3. 5). The 'good deeds' of the unsaved individual are 'filthy rags' in the sight of God (Isa. 64.6).
• The Protestant (old perspective) doctrine of justification by faith alone in Christ alone^[2]
• Soul winning and evangelism

Other Protestant and Biblical theology:

• The Protestant canon (39 books of the Old Testament and 27 books of the New Testament)^[16][2] and Scripture as the supreme and final authority in faith, practice and life^[13][14]
• God as Triune (Trinitarianism)^[13][15]
• Church invisible
• The believer's necessary dependence on the Spirit (Gal. 5. 25), and the evidence of the works of the Spirit on the believer (e.g. conviction of sin, confidence of forgiveness in Christ, assurance of adoption, renewed hope of heaven)
• The action of Christian faith through the means of grace (Protestant) to spiritually soften and cleanse the heart of the believer (this aspect was termed "heart religion" by the Puritans)
• The goodness and grace (unmerited favour) of God, particularly the grace and forgiveness that comes through the redemption that is found in Christ Jesus. The Old Testament 'grace formula' (Psa. 103.8) is received as true in this Christian era.
• Gymnobiblism - the belief that the bare text of the translated vernacular Bible, without commentary, may be safely given to the unlearned as a sufficient guide to religious truth. Good teachers are valued, but by gymnobiblism are to an extent judged, evaluated and corrected. The common church-goer can attain salvation, grow in faith, and fulfil a regulative function in the church.
• The five solae of the sixteenth century Reformation – scripture alone (sola scriptura), grace alone (sola gratia), faith alone (sola fide), Christ alone (solus Christus), glory to God alone (soli Deo Gloria)^[20]
• Creation from nothing (creatio ex nihilo) and Gen. 1 and 2 as part of a single account of creation. Unlike more mainstream fundamentalism, some reformed fundamentalists influenced by Calvinists, have held to a non-solar 'day' interpretation of Genesis 1.
• The ordination of human government (Rom. 13.1), government that ought to be respected and obeyed in so far as it is in obedience to the law of God.^[19]
• The chief end of man to glorify God, and enjoy Him forever (Westminster Shorter Catecism Q1)
• The judgement seat of Christ (2 Cor. 5) - all persons will appear before the judgement seat of Christ, and believers will receive rewards, and unbelievers righteous judgement.
• The resurrection of the dead in two events; the first resurrection is the resurrection of those who died in Christ, and the second of those who died without knowing Christ as Lord and Saviour (Dan. 12; 1 Thess. 4; Rev. 20)
• The rapture, or gathering, of God's elect (1 Thess. 4; 1 Cor. 15)
• Protestant non-conformism (or 'dissenterism'), doctrine of separation (2 Tim. 3) and ecclesiastical separatism^[15][16]
• Priesthood of all believers - each believer can go to God directly because of the mediatorial intercession of Christ, and a priestly class is not needed for communion with God.
• The 'good works' of believers (Eph. 2; James 2) - the good deeds of believers show the new life received in Christ, and must be coupled with a proclamation of the gospel. It is according to the good works of believers that eternal rewards are given.
• The belief that sex and intimacy, must only occur within a life-long heterosexual marriage.^[21] Believers are encouraged to 'marry in the Lord,' to avoid being unequally yoked.
• The Gospels (the Synoptics and John) as historical Divine-biography of the life and ministry of Jesus Christ (Lk. 1. 1-4)
• The absence of contradiction between true scriptural interpretation and authentic scientific findings

Church practice[]

• Expository preaching
• Communal prayer
• Congregational singing of evangelical hymns
• Male eldership in the church (borne out of complementarianism)^[22]
• The two ordinances of communion and believer's baptism (credobaptism)^[13]

Creeds and confessions[]

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• Creedal: Nicene Creed, Apostles' Creed, Athanasian Creed (and Chalcedonian Definition). The first four ecumenical councils of the early Church (i. e. ancient catholic orthodoxy) are positively acknowledged.
• Confessional: Westminster (1646), London Baptist (1689), Calvinistic Methodist (1823)

Contemporary evangelicalism and the second coming of Christ[]

Paisley and others believed that the evangelical church was turning away from Divine revelation, and was falling into apostasy, an apostasy that might ultimately lead to the coming of the 'man of sin' (2 Thess. 2). The perceived rise of unbelief, lawlessness and immorality in the western world, and the creeping persecution of Christians, has further led believers to expect a soon return of Jesus Christ. The return of the Jewish people to the land of Israel has further excited an expectation of the close of the age.^[23]

The theology rejected by reformed fundamentalists is substantial (e.g. classical heresies, Romanism, evolutionary theories of Adam and Eve, branches of higher criticism, panbabylonism, biblical minimalism, comparative mythology, doctrines of partial inspiration, Reformation-compromising ecumenism, non-trinitarianism, pantheism, universalism, neo-orthodoxy, New Perspective on Paul, the social gospel etc.),^[19] but what is accepted is emphasised more greatly. Reformed fundamentalists have often aligned themselves against scientism, classical Marxism,^[24] central planning, moral liberalism and now more recently, critical theory.^[19]

Congregants have been encouraged all the more to testify to Jesus, share the gospel, stand for righteousness, and live upright and holy lives. Fundamentalists have recognised the need for spiritual warfare against the 'powers and principalities of darkness': the proliferation of sensuality, violence, disorders and morbidity, are all considered obvious signs of the diabolic.

Attitudes to biblical criticism[]

Fundamentalists generally see textual criticism as predominantly settled (often due to an acknowledgement of the congruence within the Textus Receptus and Byzantine text-type) but also as potentially disturbing to those in the faith.^[25]

Fundamentalists see historical criticism as proceeding from unbelief, and consider it one of the chief culprits behind the decline of conservative evangelicalism in the Western world.^[26] Ian Paisley often referred to higher criticism as a plague and strongly associated it with infidelity,^[27] following the line of other evangelicals. Paisley promulgated the view that it was originally the Jesuits and the Church of Rome that practised higher criticism in order to undermine the Reformation movement and the gospel message proclaimed by evangelicals (see Richard Simon (priest)).

For fundamentalists, the Bible was faithfully transmitted without the alleged wild interpolations of the critics, and contains no books that are inauthentic. The integrity and internal consistency of the Bible is often remarked upon by fundamentalists.

The apologetical works of Thomas H. Horne, James Orr, William Henry Green, Robert D. Wilson, L. W. Munhall, Reuben A. Torrey, and more recently, Gleason Archer Jr., have been influential and well-received.

Apologetics[]

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A combination of evidences, Bible apologetics, and pre-suppositional arguments for Christian faith within the framework of a conservative theology have been common to fundamentalists.

Selected basic arguments:

• Fulfilled Old Testament prophecies (especially concerning the Messiah), and fulfilment of prophecies since the penning of the New Testament
• Each person's perception of the creation leaves them without an excuse regarding the Creator's existence (Rom. 1.20)
• The self-authentication (autopiston) of the scriptures
• The remarkable preservation of the Jewish people, especially after the birth of the Church
• Evangelical revivalism is often used as an argument for the authenticity of Christian faith, due to the social reforms it often brought (e.g. Factory Acts, abolitionist etc.)
• Gospel missionary zeal led to the formation of many charities and associations for the poor and needy.
• Christianity's concepts of beauty led individuals to participate in aesthetics
• Christian marriage (i.e. loving life-long monogamy) has engendered demographic stability and replacement, and has provided children with greater security
• The unparalleled impact of the Bible on lawmaking, literature and liberty
• Archaeological finds that lend corroboration to scriptural accounts (e.g. Pilate stone, Vardar Gate 'Politarch' inscription etc.)
• The fine-tuning of the universe for life in relation to the Earth, and the stability and regularity of cosmic constants. The observance of cosmic laws correlates with God as law-giver in the Mosaic Pentateuch.

Affiliated denominations, churches and colleges[]

• Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster
• Free Presbyterian Church of North America
• Independent Baptist Fellowship of North America
• Foundations Baptist Fellowship International
• Fundamental Methodist Conference, Inc.
• Evangelical Methodist Church
• International Council of Christian Churches
• American Council of Christian Churches
• Confessing Movement
• Orthodox Presbyterian Church
• Bible Presbyterian Church
• Grace Community Church
• Life Bible-Presbyterian Church
• Faith Theological Seminary
• Whitefield College of the Bible

See also[]

• Epistle of Jude
• Evangelicalism
• Conservative evangelicalism

References[]