Requetés

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"Requete" redirects here. For the Spanish superlative prefix, see Spanish adjectives. For the French title, see Master of Requests (France).
Requetés
Country Spain
TypeMilitia

The Requetés (Spanish: [rekeˈtes]), also called boinas rojas (English: "red berets"), were members of the Carlist organization Requeté. As an organisation, it operated between the mid-1900s and the early 1970s, though exact dates are not clear.

Early phase (1907–1930)[]

Emergence (1907)[]

Manresa requeté

In the early 1900s loose Carlist groups in Catalonia referred to themselves as "requeté"[1] dating back to the crack battalion of Navarre in the First Carlist War that is distinguished by general Zumalacarregui for their gallantry.[2], so named after their favourite marching song. Some Traditionalist press correspondents also used the term as their pen name.[3] In 1907 a local review in Lo Mestre Titas was referred to as "portavoz del requeté escolar" which present-day scholars consider an unofficial mouthpiece of local juvenile Carlism.[4][5] Historians support a theory where the first organization named "Requeté" was set up in Manresa in 1907 by publisher and propagandist Juan María Roma.[6] The principal objective of the organisation was defined as "fem propaganda", and called "joves carlins de Catalunya" to follow suit.[7]

Requeté was explicitly referred to as "organized under the Juventud auspices".[8] Most geographical references to Requeté were related either to Catalonia[9] or Levante.[10] Since 1910 there were notes related also to Madrid,[11] since 1911 to Andalusia,[12] Aragón, Galicia,[13] Old Castile[14] and Vascongadas,[15] and since 1912 to Navarre[16] and Canarias.[17] However, in various parts of Spain local cells were perceived as emulation of "'Requeté al estilo de Barcelona".[18]

A party document from a somewhat later period claims that Requeté was originally intended for older children and younger teenagers aged 12–16, who could not enlist to Juventudes de Acción Popular; other notes specify the age limits as 8–15. Historians describe the organization of its constitutive phase as pacífico y infantil, 'peaceful and childish', similar to later Pelayos of the 1930s rather than to a paramilitary organisation.[19] There was initially some confusion over naming: members of the organisation could have been named "Requetés", "Requeténs" or "Requetenistas".[20]

Beginnings (1907–1913)[]

Junta de requeté, Barcelona

In 1911 some press titles published an anonymous ordinance draft.[21] Although the draft rulebook only envisioned boys as members, photos showed that there were also girls present.[22] Some sources refer to "requeté de damas blancas"[23] and even described adolescent females serving as standard-bearers.[24]

In Catalonia the first case of receiving a standard was noted in 1910.[25] Basic governing structures began to emerge.[26] Larger local groups started to setup specialized subsections, like sección dramática,[27] de caridad,[28] excursionista,[29] instructiva,[30] ciclista,[31] recreativa,[32] militar,[33] alpina,[34] politico-religiosa, de prensa y propaganda, and sección de sport.[35] Since 1911 there are vague references to common gear, usually red or blue berets.[36][37][38]

Catalan Carlist leader Dalmacio Iglesias allegedly focused on turning Requeté into shock troops to participate in street fights.[39] General and retired artilleryman Joaquín Llorens was involved in Valencia, who was referred to "requeté d'en Llorens" in 1910.[40] In local groups, Martin Gibernau was named the president of the Barcelona requeté in 1910 before being succeeded by Fernando Bertrán and then Valentin Estefanell in 1911 and Julian Oliver in 1012.[41][42][43][44] In 1911, Joaquín Font y Fargas was named "director del requeté jaimista".[45] In other major centers, Francisco Alcón Orrico presided over the Valencia branch and Joaquín Castaneda over its Madrid counterpart.[46][47]

Main activities (1910s)[]

Tarragona requeté

Propaganda activities included sales of party periodicals,[48] distributing free press,[49] leafleting,[50] or tearing down street materials of competitive groups.[51] Propaganda tours included small musical bands or parades,[52][53][54] and cultural initiatives covered literary evenings,[55] musical pieces,[56] choirs,[57] reading poetry,[58] infantile recitations,[59] journalistic competitions,[60] theatrical performances,[61] dance,[62] music[63] and other "bellas artes".[64] A related field was education; some circles organized lectures and at one point created an "Academia del Requeté".[65][66] Standard requeté practice was to take part in religious events,[67] usually field masses, parades or pilgrimages.[68] Members of the group were supposed to practice "proper" Christianity (e.g. they were expected to take holy communion at least once a month).[69] Some cells started up charities.[70] Among outdoor activities, numerous excursions were formatted in-between tourism, religion and propaganda.[71][72] Requetés were reported in the press to participate in military foot drills,[73] shooting practice,[74] and sports like cycling,[75] football,[76] and climbing.[77]

In 1909 Republican press reported numerous incidents of Requeté-related violence, which included insulting other juveniles,[78] provocative marches,[79] and assaults on the premises of left-wing newspapers and organisations or attempts to stop tram circulation in order to enforce observance of religious holidays.[80][81][82] Violence was reported in Catalonia and the Vascongadas;[83] Carlist press presented the Requetés as preventing assaults on churches or ensuring safety during Carlist rallies in regards to violence.[84][85]

Attempted overhaul (1913)[]

Olot requeté

Some historians suggest that the impulse to reform the organization came from the new Carlist claimant, Don Jaime, who reportedly intended to rebuild it similar to the Camelots du Roi.[86] He discussed the plan with Llorens in 1910,[87] though his first public references to requetés are dated 1911.[88] General guidelines for a new requeté formula were issued in late 1912;[89] the news was publicised and the first known draft of the realignment plan was dated in early 1913.[90] This was also the first moment when Requeté was officially recognized by the party as its branch.[91]

Llorens intended to build an organization of disciplined, trained young men, structured in units and capable of coordinated action.[92] He named them the "Grupos de Defensa"; Requeté and Juventud were supposed to be training or logistics arrangements.[93][94] They were to form a network with various command layers whose entire structure was to remain under the supervision of Carlist politicians. A draft attributed to Llorens envisioned that Requeté were to be split into younger and older sections.[95] In 1913 the Junta Central Tradicionalista Organizadora de los Requetés de Cataluña was established with Matías Llorens Palau as its president. The Junta issued a number of guidelines intended to discipline and unite existing requeté cells,[96] and proceeded with the nomination of provincial juntas.[97] In late 1913 there was sporadic news of dissolving existing structures and creating escuadras as outlined in manuals issued by the Junta;[98] at times there was the reorganisation of specific branches.[99] The same year requeté units were reported being seen in public uniformed in "modelo Llorens".[100] Some scholars suggest that the attempted reform was largely a failure.[101]

Post-reform organization (1913–1920)[]

Sant Feliu requeté

In the late 1910s Carlist youth were reported to be engaged in street altercations with other groups like Jóvenes Bárbaros of the Radicals;[102] however, there was also news about clashes with Catalanist and Basque nationalist youth.[103][104] Some of these incidents involved the use of firearms.[105][106] In 1915 there was news on automobiles used during shooting incidents.[107] In many cases it was the requeté youth who assaulted premises that they deemed hostile or tried to disrupt rallies by the opposition.[108][109] There was also increasingly frequent information on requeté groups sabotaging electoral action, e.g. attempting to destroy ballot boxes.[110]

When the president of France Raymond Poincaré travelled by train to Madrid, he was greeted in Catalonia with "¡Viva España y Alemania!" paintings signed by Requeté.[111] When Spain's stance towards the conflict remained a heated political issue, requeté militants protected rallies advancing either neutralist (effectively pro-German) or openly pro-German and pro-Austrian narratives.[112] During a popular feast in Barcelona they assaulted participants who carried cartoons mocking the Kaiser.[113] Organized groups of adolescent boys were permitted to operate – e.g. to exercise marches – only when unarmed and in plain clothes.[114] There are cases of militant youth exalting regional leadership reported,[115] but there are also cases of Carlist deputies voicing unease and even suggesting dissolution of specific requeté cells.[116] In 1920 Don Jaime nominated Juan Pérez Nájera, a 75-year-old military, the jefé of all requeté in Spain.[117]

Dormant phase (1920–1930)[]

Valls requeté
Valls requeté

During the mid-1910s Requeté's activity began to decline, but at the turn of the decade the organisation entered a period dubbed by scholars as "disengagement and paralysis" or "irremissible decadencia".[118][119] Many proletarian members of Carlist-affiliated Sindicatos Libres involved in violent clashes with competitive labor unions were former Requetés.[120] However, Sindicatos Libres stagnated.[121] In 1922 Jaime asked the Carlist political leader Marqués de Villores to revitalize Requeté and Juventudes into "action groups".[122] At times members fought with the police.[123] They frequently lost when they fought with left-wing hit-squads. In June 1922 the Barcelona requeté promised to retaliate after declaring three members killed.[124]

In the late 1920s, the organization sent protest letters and participated in religious services.[125][126] In some provinces Requeté activity ceased completely.[127] A Barcelona branch renamed itself to "Los Mosqueteros de Jaime III".[128] In the early 1920s the Requeté and Somatén confronted each other in violent fistfights.[129] In the mid-1920s numerous Requeté members entered Somatén, a move was officially recommended by de Villores.[130] In 1927–1928 the Spanish regime suspected Requeté of planning a coup d'etat and arrested some of their members.[131]

New Requeté (1930–1939)[]

Reformatting (1930–1931)[]

Carlist standard

In May 1930 Jaime called the Carlist leaders to Paris and set up the Comité de Acción. Some historians maintain that "revitalization of shock groups was key concern" for Jaime.[132] A study on Catalan Carlism of the early 1930s does not contain any mention of an attempt to revitalize the requeté structures in the region in 1930-1931.[133]

In the late summer of 1931, the Comité focused on expanding and reorganising Requeté. There is an opinion that the organisation was to maintain an "eminently defensive character".[134] The organisation grouped fit, young adult males. Its centre of operations moved from Catalonia and Levante to the vasco-navarrese area.[135] The decisions taken in late 1931 transformed Requeté into a new organisation.[136]

Paramilitary gear-up (1931–1936)[]

Madrid requeté, 1933

In 1931 Colonel Eugenio Sanz de Lerín was appointed the Requeté chief instructor. In a few months he developed a Navarrese network of 2,000 men, grouped in newly established 10-men subunits named decurias;[137] its objective was to protect religious buildings.[138] In early 1932 the Comité de Acción was disbanded and key instructors were detained by the security.[139][140] Most decurias were dismantled; apart from a disorganized Navarrese network, elsewhere Requeté were restricted to harmless groups in big cities.[141][142] In late 1932 José Enrique Varela was appointed Jefé Nacional of Requeté.[143] He replaced the decuria scheme with a military-like structure and issued a number of rulebooks.[144][145] In 1933–1934 he toured the country making appointments and issued orders.[146][147] Although standardization efforts encountered some resistance in regions like Catalonia,[148] the organisation gained momentum beyond Navarre.[149] In early 1934 the party executive formed Frente Nacional de Boinas Rojas,[150] led by José-Luis Zamanillo.[151] Some 150 militants attended military training in Fascist Italy.[152] In late 1934 Requetés offered their service to military commanders in the October revolution.[153] In early 1935 Requeté became militant;[154] its strength was 20,000 men strong.[155] In mid-1935 Varela[156] assigned Ricardo Rada as Inspector General.[157] At the time the chief concern was weapons, with small arms being smuggled from France[158] or procured internally; in early 1935 the organization owned 450 machine-guns.[159] There were already plans for military action prepared, though intended as counter-revolutionary defense rather than as a coup.[160] In the late spring of 1936 Requeté grouped 10,000 fully armed and trained men plus 20,000 forming an auxiliary pool.[161]

Civil War (1936–1939): in combat[]

On parade, Civil War

In Navarre the organization was powerful enough to seize control over the region almost single-handedly;[162][163] it contributed to the capture of Western Aragón[164] and Gipuzkoa.[165] Smaller Requeté detachments assisted in the seizure of Western Andalusia.[166] In the first weeks of the war, the Requeté volunteers formed 15-20% of Nationalist troops on the peninsula.[167] Although the organization maintained 20,000–25,000 people in its frontline units,[168] the overall growth of the Nationalist army reduced the proportion of requetés to 9% in April 1937,[169] 5% in January 1938,[170] and 3% by the end of the war.[171] They were grouped in Carlist-only infantry battalions named tercios. The Navarrese tercios were grouped into Navarrese Brigades, units composed also of army detachments and other militias.[172] Other tercios were assigned to various larger heterogeneous units.[173]

Tercios continued to operate as Carlist battalions after political unification.[174] Recruitment was voluntary and ensured by party political structures in the rear.[175] Existing and partial data suggests they were composed mostly of working-class militants that comprised 55–85%.[176][177] It is estimated that 60,000[178] to 70,000[179] men served in Requeté one time or another, more than half from Navarre.[180] Because the Requetés were usually deployed as shock troops along the Moroccan Regulares and the Foreign Legion,[181] their casualties were above the average Nationalist losses.[182] The number of those killed in action is estimated between 4,000 and 6,000;[183] the total number of casualties is given between 13,000 and 34,000.[184]

Civil War (1936-1939): repression[]

Monument to victims of Nationalist terror, Navarre

At times various tercios or other frontline units were assigned related tasks in their zones of deployment, e.g. in Cantabria,[185] Aragón,[186] Extremadura[187] or Andalucia.[188] They were usually performed on temporary and makeshift basis; in some sources these measures are referred as “policing”, in other they are noted as part of “political cleansing”.[189] Traditionalist militia are accused of repressive measures in areas where Carlism remained a major or significant political force, notably in Navarre and Vascongadas. In these regions requetés formed major and fixed part of the Nationalist policy aimed against political enemies; some scholars list them as one of 4 agents of violence.[190] However, their exact role remains disputed.[191] According to one theory, requeté units executed repressive actions which had been planned and approved beforehand by the military;[192] the competitive one claims that at least until late 1936, requeté “death squads” acted independently and with full autonomy.[193]

Escolapios, Carlist Pamplona prison

The only province where requeté were dominant was Navarre.[194] It was supervised and at times directed by the local Carlist political executive, Junta Central Carlista.[195] The system consisted of requeté running a giant intelligence network;[196] a specialized branch busy with arrests, terror raids[197] and on-the-spot executions;[198] two Carlist-only prisons - Colegio de los Escolapios[199] and Colegio de los Salesianos in Pamplona,[200] which served as places of detention, interrogation, torture,[201] and execution;[202] filtering bodies which marked inmates for execution, further incarceration or liberation;[203] and death squads which extracted prisoners and shot them later on.[204] Some of these structures were replicated in Vascongadas, especially in Gipuzkoa and Álava; though in these provinces there were only makeshift Carlist-operated prisons,[205] requeté organisation included similar units dedicated to policing and repression tasks, euphemistically named “auxiliary services”.[206]

Navarrese Ribera Baja

The key branch entrusted with repressive measures was Requeté Auxiliar. The service grouped individuals too young or too old to qualify for regular combat units, though also other volunteers and these released from frontline troops due to wounds suffered. They were assigned numerous rearguard tasks, like postal censorship, manning convoys, gendarmerie duties, grave-digging, liaison, medical services etc,[207] though they were primarily busy with repression;[208] some of their informal units, like Tercio Móvil[209] or Partida Volante,[210] gained notoriety as excelling in terror missions.[211] Fully supervised by Junta Central, requeté members were also delegated to regular police structures in Comisaría de Investigación y Vigilancia, the key police branch busy with pursuit of presumed political enemies,[212] or in Delegación de Orden Público; some of them later grew to major positions.[213] Over time requeté death squads developed their own modus operandi; first detailed information on presumed enemies was collected by local informers, but a unit which performed repressive action in a given area originated from another location to ensure personal relations do not prevent ruthless and no-mercy attitude.[214] The area subjected to particularly heavy requeté terror was part of Navarre, Àlava and Logroño known as Ribera; officially known as “pacificación”, in more blunt statements it was referred as “persecución y captura” of political opponents.[215]

Monreal

The largest single atrocity involving requeté occurred on October 21, 1936, in the Navarrese village of Monreal. Once an attempt to raid a Tafalla prison and lynch the inmates failed due to rigid stand of local Guardia Civil, the assailants obtained an official authorisation. Three days later they extracted 65 prisoners and shot them; the entire operation, including the execution itself, was performed by Tercio Móvil's requetés.[216] The second in terms of scale comes a so-called Valcardera Massacre of August 23, 1936, which produced 52 dead; it is usually noted that requetés who shot the inmates hurried back to Pamplona to take part in a religious ceremony ongoing.[217] The crime which gained particular attention, though, was execution of 8 Basque Catholic priests in the Gipuzkoan town of Hernani and further 4 in Oiartzun in the fall of 1936.[218] In both cases requetés formed part of firing squads[219] and some authors claim that the killings were “carried out at the behest of the Carlists”; the massacre produced an intervention of the papal nuncio and damaged relations between the Nationalists and Vatican.[220] Requeté violence was denounced also by the bishop of Pamplona, Marcelino Olaechea.[221] Many minor cases of atrocities and crimes committed by requeté members are being currently investigated; some of them involved “barbaric excesses”.[222] According to an oral testimony, a woman was also beaten up by requetés.[223]

requeté officials, Donostia, 1936

In terms of personal responsibility for requeté crimes and atrocities, much of it lies with Esteban Ezcurra Arraiza, jefe de Requetés de Navarra.[224] In this role he was responsible for all repressive actions performed by the militia in the province; apart from administrative duties and co-operation with military and official repressive structures, he was also personally involved in issuing detention orders and reviewing the list of inmates.[225] However, the role of “executive arms” was assumed by Benito Santesteban Martínez[226] and Vicente Munárriz Sanz de Arellano,[227] both requeté lieutenants; they were personally ordering detentions, interrogating prisoners, commanding extractions and supervising executions. They were matched if not surpassed by the Requeté Auxiliar teniente from Àlava, Bruno Ruiz de Apodaca Juarrero, who apart from commanding numerous terror raids, boasted also of having personally killed 108 people.[228] Many other requeté members enjoyed killing and looting; some of them have volunteered specifically “to execute the enemies detained”.[229] Some accounts paint a picture of extreme torture and tormenting of inmates before execution.[230] There are authors who claim that even the Carlist political executive was shocked at “the extent of the killings” and tried to limit the terror inflicted by own forces, though mostly in vain.[231]

civil war mass grave, Spain

The scale of carnage inflicted by requetés remains uncertain”[232] and no general quantification of requeté terror is available,[233] though there is abundant evidence of requeté members taking part in repressive actions.[234] In Navarre only there were some 3,000 people executed in course of the Nationalist terror,[235] yet no source attempts to calculate what is the ratio the Carlists were responsible for. In absence of any documentation, it is not possible to say how many people were held in the Escolapios and how many of them were later murdered by requeté members.[236] Though some scholars split the responsibility for crimes and atrocities between the Carlists, the Falangists, the military and anonymous local mob,[237] other authors claim that requetés formed the “most bloody section of the Nationalist faction”[238] and excelled in political cleansing, be it in Navarre or Andalusia.[239]

Francoism and afterwards[]

Early Francoism (1940s)[]

requeté combatant: post-war propaganda image

At some point in the early 1940s, Zamanillo re-assumed the duties of Delegado Nacional de Requetés.[240] In areas with a high Carlist presence Juntas Regionales included a Requeté delegate while loose requeté cells operated locally in other regions.[241][242] Nationalist party leadership tried to ensure Requeté loyalty.[243][244] Some authors refer to "reconstuido Requeté";[245] new members were being recruited,[246] ranks were maintained[247] and subsections were developed.[248] Various groups used the organisations to recruit units to fight alongside the Nazis or as an espionage network against the British.[249][250] However, a Requeté bulletin was issued officially, posing as print of former soldiers.[251] Uniformed detachments[252] attended various gatherings, usually either religious or related to commemorations of wartime deeds.[253] Propaganda activities often led to skirmishes with FET or security forces.[254] Already prior to 1939 most conflicts within the state party were related to Requetés refusing to abandon their identity[255] and to embrace the official national-syndicalism.[256] During the 1940s the Falangists and groups were referred to as "Requetés" engaged in intimidation[257] or fistfights.[258] The largest riots occurred in 1945 in Pamplona.[259] The brawls continued until the early 1950s.[260]

Police kept monitoring Requeté cells.[261] Displaying a badge in public or holding a Requeté ID card could have been grounds for detention,[262][263] but the presence of small uniformed groups was usually tolerated during ex-combatant or religious events.[264] Requeté members detained during street brawls were usually released after 2 weeks,[265] though after the Pamplona riots some leaders were kept behind bars longer.[266] In the late-1940s–early 1950s the administration condoned public appearances of a Requeté-styled group which accompanied an offshoot carloctavista claimant cultivated by the regime.[267] Over time the official policy towards Carlist organizations became more lenient and administration permitted massive rallies.[268]

Mid-Francoism (1950s)[]

Montejurra, 1954

In the early 1950s, wartime ex-combatants approached or were in their 40s[269] Zamanillo, as Delegado Nacional de Requeté, continued to represent the organization in Secretaría Nacional[270] and regional jefés operated locally,[271] but it is not clear how much of the network was still rooted in the ground.[272]

The visible revitalisation of Carlism, related to the 1957 appearance of Don Carlos Hugo and his team, did not affect Requeté much; the focus was on AET.[273] Uniformed militants were needed in Traditionalist rallies like the Montejurra ascent[274] and in large cities "Requetés" were at times detained for carrying placards aimed against Don Juan Carlos.[275] In 1957 Zamanillo nominated Arturo Márquez de Prado y Pareja as "chief instructor" with the intent to resume military training.[276] Some subsections of the organization were established. In 1958 the "Comisión Técnica Nacional del Requeté" was noted for its lengthy political analysis. It was intended for the party leader José María Valiente and recommended a firm and intransigent stand against the Juanistas and the regime.[277]

In 1959 the Navarrese jefé Francisco Javier Astraín complained about dissent within the regional organisation, which "siempre había en la provincia para encontrar un jefe de requeté"; he suggested appointing a new, strong-hand, military leader.[278] On the other hand, some reports advocated exactly the opposite: provide more independence for the Requeté.[279] In 1960 Junta Nacional formed 7 specialized departments, one of which was Comisión de Requeté.[280] The same year Zamanillo left the seat of Requete delegate and was succeeded by Márquez de Prado.[281]

Late Francoism (1960s)[]

uniformed Requeté members during a rally near Madrid, 1966

Márquez de Prado thought about assisting Cuban counter-revolutionaries and to OAS in Algeria,[282] and a police report from 1962 claimed that the organisations were "perfectly organized".[283] Carlists in Don Carlos Hugo's entourage became anxious about the Requeté's militaristic influence in the Comunión.[284] De Prado remained suspicious about the prince, his entourage, and their new ideas,[285] while Requeté gradually supported Traditionalist orthodoxy.[286] Ramón Massó and other Huguista leaders concluded that de Prado, obsessed with confronting counter-revolution, had to be sidelined.[287]

In 1963 Pedro José Zabala presented Valiente with his draft of the Requeté overhaul. The group envisioned that the organisation "should have a more political and social mission",[288] and that de Prado should be ousted.[289] Juan Zavala Castella, the brother of another Huguista partisan, was proposed as the new national delegate.[290] The same year de Prado asked Valiente to consolidate his own powers; some considered it a preemptive strike inspired by Zamanillo, who was already expelled from the Comunión.[291] The Requeté was still officially represented in Junta Nacional[292] and Secretaría Nacional,[293] and in 1963 its budget comprised 4% of the Comunión's expenses.[294] The pressure on Valiente grew until de Prado was dismissed in early 1965 and replaced by Miguel de San Cristobál Ursua.[295][296]

Requeté guard of honour at Montejurra, 1960s

San Cristobál proposed to decentralise[297] and demilitarise the organisation,[298] but some decisions suggested buildup of "action groups".[299] San Cristobál's proposal was supported by most participants in the party's 1966 congress,[300] but another option was chosen. The nationwide Requeté executive group was disbanded and its local branches were given to corresponding juntas, which triggered protests.[301][302][303] some Juntas Provinciales accused the Huguista-dominated secretariat of manipulating Carlist organisations and many members resigned or left.[304][305] An internal report in 1967 claimed that disorganization of Requeté "es total".[306] Some historians maintain that in the years following decentralisation, Requeté "practically disappeared".[307] However, some Traditionalists concluded that the Huguistas had already won the battle for Requeté, which in turn enabled them to control the entire party.[308]

Decomposition (1970s)[]

Montejurra, 1973

In the early 1970s San Cristobál was considered to be the Navarrese regional jefé in the party, though regional executive bodies did not include a Requeté representative.[309][310] The ex-combatant Requeté hermandad, 'brotherhood' was headed by Ignacio Romero Osborne since 1965.[311] With the emergence of competitive Traditionalist organisations,[312] Romero re-set a progresist organisation in France in 1971,[313] while various other hermandades pursued their own political paths, which usually centred around late Francoist ideas and Don Juan Carlos.[314] In 1972–1973 some of them failed to revitalise the anti-Huguista Carlist movement.[315] During a series of rallies staged in 1971–1972 in the French Arbonné, the Comunión Tradicionalista was transformed into Partido Carlista. The organisation did not include any Requeté section.[316] Historians claim that as Partido Carlista grew in the early 1970s, the Requeté – which was almost defunct –[317] was effectively dissolved with other sections of the movement, like AET, MOT, and the Margaritas.[318]

Don Sixto (later photo)

The important person in this process was de Prado,[319] who was assisted by Zamanillo.[320] In 1973 the Comisión Permanente of Junta Nacional de Jefes de Requetés, led by de Prado,[321] issued a manifesto which declared Don Carlos Hugo to be a traitor to the sacred cause.[322] In 1975, de Prado and his followers pledged loyalty to Don Sixto.[323] His group, Jefatura Nacional de Requetés, continued to issue manifestos and may have been involved in the Montejurra shooting in 1976.[324][325]

Recent times (1980s onwards)[]

"Requeté" is usually used to refer to various ex-combatant organisations, either engaged in post-Francoist rallies or commemorative feasts related to milestones of Carlist history.[326][327]

Their activity became less public and appeared more in private, small-circle meetings.[328] Some members became legal owners of sanctuaries built during Franco's reign and issued publications on their units' history, though fairly frequent death notices demonstrated that the ranks of combatants were being reduced.[329] Death notices were still being published up to 2019, though most refer to "the last living combatant" from a specific region or battalion.[330][331]

Legacy[]

Vilalba dels Arcs, vandalized cross honoring the fallen requeté

Although its recent past remains a highly controversial topic in Spain, the Requeté is seldom mentioned by itself; in public discourse Carlist volunteers are usually bundled together with other groups as components of Francoism, who are also responsible for the introduction of an anti-democratic, brutal dictatorial system.[332]

Spontaneous cleansing[]

Since the end of Francoism, various commemorative stones, plaques, crosses, and other objects which glorify wartime deeds performed by the Requeté have been spontaneously vandalized, destroyed, or removed across Spain, especially in the Basque Country, Navarre, and Catalonia. For example, a monument altar on the Isuskitza mountain was destroyed with large quantities of explosives,[333] while a commemorative stone in Leitza was repeatedly damaged after restoration attempts.[334] As many objects were and are located in remote places, the perpetrators usually remain unidentified; the ETA and related groups have been suspected in some of the attempts.[335] Recently, semi-anonymous groups use the internet to claim responsibility and boast about cleansing public space from fascist remnants.[336][337]

Historical Memory Law[]

Codo, former Calle Tercio de Ntra Señora de Montserrat

The adoption of the 2007 Historical Memory Law commenced an official nationwide campaign which included the removal of Requeté legacy from public space. As the law declared the exaltation of the civil war and the dictatorship to be illegal, local authorities have been obliged to purge all related objects. The campaign affected names honoring specific tercios,[338] individuals,[339] or songs.[340] In some cases, names referring to Navarre as the region itself are considered Francoist heritage.[341] The process is ongoing; some NGOs continue to track names which they claim deserve removal,[342] and if local authorities are deemed inactive the central Madrid institutions get involved.[343] In some cases, specific names like “Calle Montejurra” have been either altered slightly or allowed to remain unchanged.[344][345] Apart from names, remaining stones or objects related to Requeté have been targeted and removed, like the monument dedicated to Navarrese Brigades in Santander[346] and the Egirleta commemorative cross in Bilbao.[347] Sometimes only commemorative plaques are either removed or replaced while the object remains untouched.[348]

Pamplona, former Nationalist fallen mausoleum as exposition hall

Currently, the single Requeté-related object that generates the most controversy is a huge building in central Pamplona, which was erected in the early Francoist period as Monumento a Los Caídos. It was constructed to honor the Navarrese who fell during the Civil War while fighting in the Nationalist ranks; out of 4,500 individuals identified, approximately 1,700 were Carlist militiamen.[349] Since the 1980s the Francoist symbols have been gradually reduced to be almost completely eliminated in the early 21st century.[350] Recently progressivist groups have demanded either the demolition or complete redesign of the building, which reportedly glorifies fascism.[351] The debate is still active and is currently stuck in various municipal administrative and judicial bodies.[352] Less publicised is the controversy related to a small mausoleum of Catalan Requetés in Montserrat. In 2018, after a lengthy public debate, the motion to close the premises was approved by the Catalan parliament and the Generalitat is expected to take appropriate action.[353] It also targets the only currently existing monument to Requetés in Spain located in front of the building.[354]

partially visible inscriptions, currently covered, Pamplona mausoleum
partially visible inscriptions, currently covered, Pamplona mausoleum

Some groups claim that the Historical Memory Law is the legal basis for the prohibition of public acts planned by organizations that embrace the Requeté tradition. Every year controversies related to the anniversary of the 1936 anniversary coup emerge around mid-July. For example, in 2020, an organization named La Asociación Granadina Verdad, Justicia y Reparación demanded that authorities ban a "fascist act" planned at the local cemetery in honor of "héroes de la España nacional" in Granada, which was organised by a local Carlist group who gathered five participants.[355] If events are small and private, they are usually permitted.[356]

Navarre[]

Leitza, the empty spot which used to host a commemorative stone[357]

In Navarre, the debate over Requeté's past goes far beyond purging public space from Francoist remnants and reappears in other conversations. In 2016 the Parliament of Navarre hosted an expressionist convention named “Navarra-1936-Nafarroa”, where drawings portrayed Requetés and Falangists as bloody assassins who mounted a murderous campaign of terror.[358] Right-wing politicians declared that the exposition presented a false version of the past and defamed their ancestors.[359] The pictures and wording were not removed or changed, but the parliament's president made some conciliatory comments.[360] A longtime discussion over the Museum of Carlism, an institution set up and financed by the regional self-government, climaxed in 2017. Democratic and Basque nationalist groups claimed that authorities tolerated the glorification of the Requeté and revised history to cover up Carlist atrocities.[361] They demanded the reorganisation of expositions produced by the Museum, as the existing ones reportedly passed in silence over the Requeté's role in Francoist repression.[362] The latest controversy in 2018 relates to a Carlist religious service where a commemorative stone was re-erected in Leitza. The event was attended by local parliament members from the UPN and Navarra Suma.[363] Navarrese left-wing politicians denounced the attempt to cherish the Requeté tradition as fascism, and the issue was brought before the government, which refused to take action and declared that no law had been violated.[364]

Jaime I. del Burgo

Among Spanish official political groups, the one most vehemently against the Requeté tradition is Bildu, a Basque nationalist party very militant in Navarre.[365] Non-political organizations denounced the Carlist militia as murderous criminals are Ateneo Basilio Lacort in Navarre[366] and Asociación Para la Recuperación de la Memoria Histórica in Spain.[367] Numerous historiographic studies on the Spanish Civil War often associate Requeté with repression and some works specifically declare Carlism to be responsible for crimes and atrocities.[368][369] Defence of the Requeté is mounted by minuscule groups which claim the Carlist heritage, either from the Traditionalist or from the Socialist faction.[370][371] Some sympathy is demonstrated by parties and groups related to Navarrismo, a centre-right local political current, sympathised with the Requeté. Nationally recognised personalities spoke out in defense of the Requeté, such as Navarrese politician Jaime Ignacio del Burgo Tajadura and business tycoon Luis Hernando de Larramendi y Martínez, both sons to former Requetés; the latter presides over a foundation set up to protect the Carlist heritage. Historiographic works emerging in these circles challenge the notion of “memoria histórica” (which typically assumes a highly anti-Francoist tone) as false and prejudiced against the Requeté.[372]

Literature[]

Carlist topics were either small or absent in literary works created during the Civil War.[373][374] If mentioned, the Requeté is marginally referred to evoke the atmosphere of Francoist terror or repression, like in El jinete polaco (1991) by Antonio Muñoz Molina;[375] represent dehumanized barbaric instincts, such as in El lector de Jules Verne (2012) by Almudena Grandes;[376] or targeted as agents of bloody repression in works (particularly Basque), like in Antzararen bidea by Jokin Muñoz.[377] Literature sympathising with Requetés is rare, such as En el Requeté de Olite (2016) by Mikel Azurmendi.[378] Although it is celebrated in Carlism-flavored groupings it is heavily criticised by other parties.[379]

See also[]

Footnotes[]

  1. ^ La Libertad 19.09.03, available here
  2. ^ William Walton, The Revolutions of Spain, from 1808 to the End of 1836, vol. 2, London 1837, p. 438, available here; the name was also used by some Carlist units in the Third Carlist War, see e.g. Las Provincias 15.11.01, available here.
  3. ^ El Tradicionalista 08.12.04, available here
  4. ^ El Tradicionalista 04.04.07, available here
  5. ^ Jordi Canal i Morell, Banderas blancas, boinas rojas: una historia política del carlismo, 1876-1939, Madrid 2006, ISBN 9788496467347, p. 38
  6. ^ Jordi Canal, El carlismo, Madrid 2000, ISBN 8420639478, p. 265
  7. ^ La Bandera Regional 03.10.08, available here
  8. ^ in Tarrasa the local branch was to "organizar bajo la base de la Juventud tradicionalista un requeté", El Eco de Navarra 16.11.12, available here
  9. ^ in 1909-1913 the requeté cells were noted in Badalona, Barcelona, Blanes, Girona, Igualada, Lérida, Manresa, Olot, Plá de Cabra, Reus, Sabadell, Tarragona, Tarrasa, Tortosa, Vich and other Catalan locations
  10. ^ in 1909-1913 the requeté cells were noted in Alcoy, Castellón, Orihuela, Valencia, Villarreal, Cartagena and other Levantine locations
  11. ^ El Salmantino 02.12.10, available here
  12. ^ for Córdoba see Diario de Córdoba 07.08.11, available here
  13. ^ for Orense see El Noroeste 06.06.11, available here
  14. ^ for Palencia see La Bandera Regional 28.10.11, available here
  15. ^ for Bilbao see La Bandera Regional 12.08.11, available here
  16. ^ for Pamplona see El Norte 16.05.12, available here
  17. ^ for Santa Cruz de Tenerife see El Progreso 08.11.12, available here
  18. ^ El Correo Español 19.01.10, available here
  19. ^ Canal 2000, p. 265
  20. ^ Diario de Córdoba 07.05.21, available here
  21. ^ the draft envisioned 3 categories of members: protectores (pay 0,25 ptas monthly, no voting rights, any member of circulo tradicionalista), numerarios (10-17 years, also pay 0,25 ptas), and aspirantes (below 10 years, pay at least 0,10 ptas, can participate in sections but no voting rights). The governing body was Junta Directiva (section heads + 6 members). Every branch was to be composed of 6 sections: Religión, Política y Sociología, Bellas Artes, Ciencias, Prensa and Sport, each with separate junta (president, secretary and 2 members), La Bandera Regional 06.05.11, available here
  22. ^ see accompanying photos
  23. ^ El Clamor 02.09.11, available here
  24. ^ see e.g. photos in La Hormiga de Oro, 06.07.12, La Hormiga de Oro, 15.06.12, La Hormiga de Oro, 21.09.12
  25. ^ some of the requeté standards featured the Catalan symbol, "cuatro barras", see e.g. La Correspondencia de España 10.06.10, available here
  26. ^ La Bandera Regional 04.03.11, available here, La Bandera Regional 17.12.11, available here
  27. ^ Diario de Reus 29.01.11, available here, La Defensa 30.07.11, available here
  28. ^ El Restaurador 18.11.15, available here
  29. ^ El Norte 18.05.11, available here
  30. ^ El Norte 18.05.11, available here
  31. ^ La Tradición 20.07.12, available here
  32. ^ El Norte 14.08.12, available here
  33. ^ El Norte 14.08.12, available here
  34. ^ Diario de Galicia 23.04.14, available here
  35. ^ El Restaurador 09.01.13, available here
  36. ^ La Aurora 01.07.11, available here, La Correspondencia de España 05.08.12, available here
  37. ^ El Diario Palentino 27.01.13, available here
  38. ^ Los Debates 02.11.10, available here
  39. ^ Eduardo González Calleja, Paramilitarització i violencia politica a l'Espanya del primer terc de segle: el requeté tradicionalista (1900-1936), [in:] Revista de Girona 147 (1991), p. 70
  40. ^ La Campañia de Gracia 06.08.10, available here
  41. ^ El Correo Español 09.12.10, available here
  42. ^ La Bandera Regional 02.09.11, available here, La Bandera Regional 16.09.11, available here
  43. ^ El Norte 10.12.11, available here
  44. ^ El Norte 05.11.12, available here
  45. ^ La Regeneracion 15.10.11, available here
  46. ^ Diario de Valencia 25.08.12, available here
  47. ^ El Salmantino 29.09.12, available here
  48. ^ El Correo Español 19.01.10, available here; at times sales included pamphlets with Carlist Cortes speeches, Las Provincias 01.02.12, available here
  49. ^ La Bandera Regional 11.12.09, available here
  50. ^ Diario de Tortosa 28.11.14, available here
  51. ^ La Correspondencia de España 15.04.11, available here
  52. ^ Diario de Valencia 08.06.13, available here
  53. ^ La Tradición 21.06.13, available here
  54. ^ El País 01.06.11, available here
  55. ^ El Norte 21.01.10, available here
  56. ^ El Porvenir 22.04.09, available here, also La Defensa 29.10.10, available here
  57. ^ El Tradicionalista 09.01.09, available here
  58. ^ La Bandera Regional 04.12.09, available here, also La Bandera Regional 17.09.10, available here
  59. ^ Diario de Valencia 25.06.13, available here
  60. ^ El Porvenir 01.02.12, available here
  61. ^ La Tradición 20.04.12, available here
  62. ^ La Bandera Regional 24.07.09, available here
  63. ^ El Norte 06.11.10, available here
  64. ^ El Conquistador 15.02.12, available here. Some gatherings turned into multi-cultural events, which included orchestral music, poetry, films, stage acting and literary monologues, see e.g. La Bandera Regional 08.12.11, available here
  65. ^ El Norte 09.05.11, available here
  66. ^ La Cruz 27.07.11, available here
  67. ^ Libertad 03.11.10, available here
  68. ^ El Norte 05.12.11, available here. In a few cases a requeté cell had its "director espiritual", La Tradición 29.07.11, available here
  69. ^ El Restaurador 25.02.11, available here
  70. ^ El Restaurador 18.11.15, available here
  71. ^ La Correspondencia de España 06.11.10, available here, also El Restaurador 25.04.11, available here, also La Tradición 20.07.12, available here
  72. ^ Los Debates 02.11.10, available here
  73. ^ La Rioja 04.06.12, available here, El Cantábrico 23.12.12, available here
  74. ^ La Bandera Regional 15.10.10, available here, also La Bandera Regional 17.02.12, available here
  75. ^ El Tiempo 13.08.12, available here
  76. ^ El Clamor 02.09.11, available here, also La Correspondencia de Valencia 23.10.17, available here
  77. ^ Diario de Galicia 23.04.14, available here. Trophies involved were named "Copa Requeté", El Restaurador 10.12.18, available here
  78. ^ El Pueblo 06.06.10, available here
  79. ^ e.g. in 1912 groups of requetés prowled along Ramblas shouting "abajo la república portuguesa" La Atalaya 14.07.12, available here
  80. ^ El Pueblo 08.09.09, available here
  81. ^ La Correspondencia de España 14.07.12, available here
  82. ^ Las Provincias 14.04.11, available here; also one year later requetés pelted Barcelona trams with stones to enforce halt in circulation,El Pueblo 06.04.12, available here
  83. ^ especially a 1912 incident in Villaviciosa was noted by many press titles, see e.g. El Pueblo 10.08.12, available here; for clashes between requetés and bizkaitarras in Bilbao see Las Provincias 24.12.12, available here
  84. ^ Eduardo González Calleja, La razón de la fuerza: orden público, subversión y violencia política en la España de la Restauración, Madrid 1998, ISBN 9788400077785, p. 479
  85. ^ Las Provincias 08.06.14, available here
  86. ^ Aróstegui 2013, p. 53
  87. ^ Aróstegui 2013, p. 56
  88. ^ in 1911 Don Jaime referred to "mis queridos requetés", La Bandera Regional 08.12.11, available here
  89. ^ Aróstegui 2013, p. 57
  90. ^ already in November 1911 the republican press ridiculed Llorens and his reorganisación, La Opinión 26.11.12, available here
  91. ^ Agustín Fernández Escudero, El marqués de Cerralbo (1845-1922): biografía politica [PhD thesis], Madrid 2012, p. 458
  92. ^ Canal 2006, p. 38
  93. ^ Aróstegui 2013, p. 60
  94. ^ González Calleja 1998, p. 492
  95. ^ so-called "Requeté Joven" was to group teenagers capable of withstanding a march with 12 kg backpack; "Requeté Viejo" was to group adults
  96. ^ it was stressed that the disciplined few were more valuable than the undisciplined many; the language employed suggests there might have been some resistance against unification measures. It was prohibited to claim the name of Requeté with no prior authorisation or to build similar groupings, El Norte 15.10.13, available here
  97. ^ El Norte 03.12.13, available here
  98. ^ La Correspondencia de España 23.10.13, available here
  99. ^ El Norte 05.06.13, available here
  100. ^ El Porvenir 05.06.13, available here
  101. ^ reportedly because the advent of World War One shifted attention, Eduardo G. Calleja, Julio Aróstegui Sánchez, La tradición recuperada. El Requeté carlista y la insurrección, [in:] Historia contemporánea 11 (1994), p. 32
  102. ^ e.g. in 1913 a group of requeté when on excursion was provoked by the Radicals, who demanded them to take down their berets; an altercation ensused. One requeté member fired a revolver and heavily wounded one of the challengers, El Adelanto 28.04.13, available here, also La Atalaya 15.11.15, available here, also El Luchador 01.06.17, available here
  103. ^ La Correspondencia de España 27.01.19, available here
  104. ^ Heraldo de Zamora 28.07.13, available here
  105. ^ La Correspondencia de España 06.02.17 available here
  106. ^ La Información 10.11.13, available here
  107. ^ El Avisador Numantino 17.11.15, available here
  108. ^ Diario de Valencia 11.09.13, available here
  109. ^ El Pueblo 24.06.15, available here
  110. ^ La Atalaya 09.03.14, available here, also La Atalaya 10.04.16, available here, also El Salmantino 27.10.15, available here
  111. ^ El Norte 11.10.13, available here
  112. ^ El Pueblo 08.02.15, available here
  113. ^ La Prensa 19.02.15, available here. In 1917 some politicians already suggested that the organization was actually financed by Germany, Heraldo de Menorca 10.05.17, available here
  114. ^ El Noroeste 25.07.15, available here
  115. ^ see e.g. a note on requeté parade from the Cathedral to the palace of the then Catalan Carlist leader, Duque de Solferino, who was greeted with vivas, La Correspondencia de España 23.05.13, available here
  116. ^ see reference on Luis Garcia Guijarro, El Cantábrico 09.10.16, available here
  117. ^ González Calleja 1991, p. 71. It is not clear how long Najera continued in his role. The last identified reference to Pérez Nájera as the requete jefe comes from 1922, El Debate 10.03.22, available here
  118. ^ Canal 2000, p. 267
  119. ^ González Calleja 1991, p. 70
  120. ^ El Progreso 29.12.20, available here, also Diario de Córdoba 07.05.21, available here. It seems that there were not a marginal number of workers involved in Requeté, as some were later noted as involved in Sindicatos Libres, see e.g. El Día de Palencia 17.10.30, available here
  121. ^ Colin M. Winston, Carlist worker groups in Catalonia, 1900-1923, [in:] Stanley G. Payne (ed.), Identidad y nacionalismo en la España contemporánea: el Carlismo 1833-1875, Madrid 1996, ISBN 8487863469, pp. 85-101
  122. ^ González Calleja 1991, p. 70
  123. ^ La Correspondencia de España 08.01.23, available here
  124. ^ La Correspondencia de España 06.06.23, available here
  125. ^ El Adelanto 18.09.26, available here
  126. ^ El Eco de Gerona 12.05.28, available here
  127. ^ for Santander see El Cantábrico 01.06.23, available here
  128. ^ La Tierra 26.07.24, available here
  129. ^ El Luchador 13.08.20, available here
  130. ^ Julio Prada Rodríguez, El Fenix que siempre renace. El carlismo ourensano (1894-1936), [in:] Espacio, Tiempo y Forma, Series V, Historía Contemporánea 17 (2005), p. 125. Villores joined Somatén himself, who joined the organization himself, see Somatén. Boletín Oficial I/10 (1924), available here
  131. ^ e.g. in August 1927 the Ministry of Interior warned the civil governors of Catalan provinces that a meeting of some 150 Carlists, called by the Barcelona requete, was about planning the coup, Robert Vallverdú i Martí, El carlisme català durant la Segona República Espanyola 1931-1936, Barcelona 2008, ISBN 9788478260805, p. 16
  132. ^ Aróstegui 2013, p. 71
  133. ^ compare Vallverdú i Martí 2008, pp. 19-20, 32-36
  134. ^ González Calleja 1991, p. 71
  135. ^ with branches in Sandander, Barcelona and Bilbao, González Calleja 1991, p. 71, Canal 2000, p. 298
  136. ^ some authors claim even that in 1931 Requeté was born as a new organisation and see little or no continuity compared to earlier efforts, Jeremy MacClancy, The Decline of Carlism, Reno 2000, ISBN 9780874173444, p. 27
  137. ^ recruitment and instruction was to be handled by Jaime del Burgo and Generoso Huarte, González Calleja 1991, p. 71
  138. ^ González Calleja 1991, p. 71, Canal 2000, p. 298, Aróstegui 2013, p. 73
  139. ^ Comité de Acción was dissolved by the new claimant, Don Alfonso Carlos, as it interfered with talks with the Alfonsinos, González Calleja 1991, p. 72, González Calleja 2011, p. 76
  140. ^ in May 1932 Huarte, del Burgo and others were detained as info on decurias and rumors about smuggling or arms leaked out, González Calleja 1991, p. 72, González Calleja 2011, p. 79. Some point also to disturbances in Bilbao as motives for detention Aróstegui 2013, p. 76. Del Burgo remained in prison until November 1932, Blinkhorn 2008, p. 78
  141. ^ Canal 2000, p. 299, Aróstegui 2013, p. 76
  142. ^ "outside Navarre the Requeté and AET were largely restricted to big cities, and even there most Requeté groups consisted merely of members of the Carlist Youth who donned red berets and khaki battle dress for special occasions", Blinkhorn 2008, p. 76. In terms of street militancy at times Requeté was outpaced by AET, for Barcelona see Vallverdú i Martí 2008, pp. 93-94, for Pamplona see González Calleja 2011, pp. 79, 192
  143. ^ González Calleja 2011, p. 123
  144. ^ 6 requetés formed a patrulla; 3 patrullas formed a pelotón (some 20 men); 3 pelotóns formed a piqueté (some 70 men); 3 piquetés formed a requeté (some 246 men); 3 requetés formed a tercio (some 720 men). All were to use a khaki uniform. Executive "delegaciones" were to operate on national, provincial and local levels. Originally there were 3 layers envisiones: "profesional", "activo" and "reserva", but it seems this particular feature was abandoned. Larger units were to encompass specialized sub-units and detachment, like a liaison platoon, González Calleja 2011, pp. 123-124, Aróstegui 2013, p. 77, Canal 2000, p. 300
  145. ^ in late 1932 Varela wrote Compendio de Ordenanzas, Reglamento y Obligaciones del Boina Roja, Jefe de Patrulla and Jefe del Requeté rulebooks, modeled on the regular army ordinance, González Calleja 1991, p. 72. However, in 1934 Jaime del Burgo issues "Reglamento Táctico", González Calleja 2011, p. 199; it is not clear whether del Burgo's rulebook was to supplement or replace earlier Varela's regulations
  146. ^ in 1934 Junta Delegada ordered that presidents of local executives were to be nominated and not - as it used to be - elected, which was a further step towards turning Requeté from a citizen militia into a military structure, González Calleja 2011, p. 189
  147. ^ González Calleja 2011, p. 199
  148. ^ some existing Catalan requeté juntas refused to dissolve themselves; the regional leader Lorenzo, Alier had to issue specific orders and press the issue, though local requeté still insisted on remnants of autonomy, e.g. own uniforms. The Catalan commander Josep Cunill found it hard to enforce homogeneity, Vallverdú i Martí 2008, pp. 199-200
  149. ^ in 1934 requeté was quite structured in Navarre, with major outlets in Catalonia, Biscay, Andalusia and Valencia, González Calleja 1991, p. 72, Aróstegui 2013, p. 77. An impressive display of Andalusian militancy came on April 15, 1934, when at a Quintillo estate near Seville some 650 trained and uniformed requetés made a stunning impression on all those watching; following a parade and foot drills, a simulation of assault on enemy position followed, González Calleja 2011, pp. 194-195. Another display of progress of requeté militarisation was staged in the Basque Zumarraga on July 22, 1934, when half a thousand of uniformed militants marched drilled in military formations, dazzling the audience, Aróstegui 2013, p. 82. There was no similar show of prowess in Catalonia, though local leaders Sivatte and Cunill advanced the military buildup as well, Vallverdú i Martí 2008, p. 140
  150. ^ González Calleja 1991, p. 74, Blinkhorn 2008, p. 136
  151. ^ Blinkhorn 2008, p. 207 González Calleja 2011, p. 199. In late 1934 the new Carlist political leader Manuel Fal Conde set up also Junta Técnica, sort of advisory board to Requeté. The broadly sketched plans are perhaps best demonstrated by presence of representatives of all army branches – including Navy and Aviation, González Calleja 2011, p. 197-8
  152. ^ in the summe of 1934 summer first 15 Carlists travelled to Rome to receive training in La Dispoli base in Furbara. Other groups soon followed. The instruction covered usage of modern arms (like machine guns and mortars) and infantry tactics (like manouvre or fire management), González Calleja 2011, p. 198 Blinkhorn 2008, p. 214
  153. ^ in many provinces local requetés reported to military barracks and offered assistance; indeed, in some cases they did participate in "en tareas defensivas y represivas" Aróstegui 2013, p. 83. In some areas, notably in Catalonia, they proved of much value, Vallverdú i Martí 2008, p. 181
  154. ^ Blinkhorn 2008, p. 221
  155. ^ the requeté army was heavily dependent on Navarre, Blinkhorn 2008, p. 220. According to various authors the Navarrese troops amounted to 5,400 men - González Calleja 2011, p. 264, 6,000 men - Blinkhorn 2008, p. 224, or 5,694 men - Canal 2000, p. 322. Other regions with highest militancy were Catalonia (4,000 men), Levante (at least 3,700 men, data for Valencia missing), Vascongadas (at least 2,500 men, data for Biscay missing), Old Castile (1,380 men), Madrid (740 men), Andalusia (at least 640 men, data for Eastern provinces missing). The total was around 20,000 men, Vallverdú i Martí 2008, p. 257. Other scholers provide data also for Aragón (some 150 men), Aróstegui 2013, p. 84
  156. ^ following the 1933 electoral triumph of the Right, in 1934 Varela (suspended following Sanjurjada) was reinstated in the army, Aróstegui 2013, p. 81. For some time he tried to continue with his earlier Requeté engagements, but constantly monitored by security he finally gave up and focused on his army duties, González Calleja 2011, p. 261
  157. ^ González Calleja 2011, p. 199, Blinkhorn 2008, p. 222. Some scholars claim the handover between Varela and Rada took place in late 1935, Aróstegui 2013, p. 86. Another chief personality and professional military was Alejandro Utrilla Belbel, who headed the key regional organisation in Navarre
  158. ^ Blinkhorn 2008, p. 223 González Calleja 2011, p. 372, Vallverdú i Martí 2008, pp. 303-306
  159. ^ José Manuel Martínez Bande, Los años críticos: República, conspiración, revolución y alzamiento, Madrid 2011, ISBN 9788499207469, p. 194
  160. ^ González Calleja 1991, p. 74 González Calleja 2011, p. 261. The assumption was that requeté units would report to local military commanders and offer assistance, González Calleja 2011, p. 262
  161. ^ González Calleja 2011, p. 373, Blinkhorn 2008, p. 224
  162. ^ for a hagiographic account of Carlist rising in Navarre see Antonio de Lizarza et al., Navarra Fue La Primera 1936-1939, Pamplona 2006, ISBN 8493508187. For a decidedly hostile account, see Fernando Mikelarena Peña, Sin piedad: Limpieza política en Navarra, 1936. Responsables, colaboradores y ejecutores, Pamplona 2015, ISBN 9788476819166. For brief academic narrative see Angel Pascual Bonis, Navarra 1936: ¿Insurrección militar y/o levantamiento popular?, [in:] Príncipe de Viana 5 (1986), pp. 131-140. For massive anthropological study see Javier Ugarte, La nueva Covadonga insurgente: Orígenes sociales y culturales de la sublevación de 1936 en Navarra y el País Vasco, Madrid 1998, ISBN 9788470305313
  163. ^ "en cuestión de días, las milicias carlistas —el Requeté— había establecido su control sobre Navarra", Paul Preston, Revolución y guerra en España, 1931-1939, Madrid 1986, ISBN 9788420695327, p. 59
  164. ^ Aróstegui 2013, p. 406
  165. ^ Aróstegui 2013, pp. 164-176, 192-202, 229-236, 262-269
  166. ^ Aróstegui 2013, pp. 705-781
  167. ^ in late July 1936 out of 90,140 Nationalist troops on the peninsula some 35,000 were militiamen, Aróstegui 2013, p. 808. How many of them were requetés is not clear, though according to some data the Navarrese Carlist volunteers only were 8,500. To the expert historian "estas cantidades parecen quedarse cortas", Aróstegui 2013, p. 808. Some historians claim that there were 40,000 Carlist volunteers "en los primeros dias" of the war, Josep Carles Clemente Muñoz, Breve historia de las guerras carlistas, Madrid 2011, ISBN 9788499671710, p. 168. Others suggest rather the figure of 30,000 requeté volunteers, compared to 10,000 of the Falange, Manuel Martorell Pérez, La continuidad ideológica del carlismo tras la Guerra Civil [PhD thesis in Historia Contemporanea, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia], Valencia 2009, pp. 80-81
  168. ^ Aróstegui 2013, p. 810
  169. ^ in April 1937 the National troops were some 290,000 men, Stanley G. Payne, The Spanish Revolution, Madison 1970, ISBN 9780393098853, pp. 329–330
  170. ^ at the turn of 1937/1938 the Nationalist troops amounted to 700,000 men, Stanley G. Payne, The Spanish Civil War, Cambridge 2012, ISBN 9780521174701, p. 188
  171. ^ in March 1939 the Nationalists had some 900,000 men in their ranks, Stanley G. Payne, The Franco Regime, Madison 1987, ISBN 9780299110741, p. 244
  172. ^ one scholar claims that Carlist volunteers formed "columna vertebral" of Navarrese Brigades, Daniel Jesús García Riol, La resistencia tradicionalista a la renovación ideológica del carlismo (1965-1973) [PhD thesis UNED], Madrid 2015, p. 37
  173. ^ e.g. Tercio de Montserrat formed part of 5. División Organica, a cavalry division, a reserve brigade and a Moroccan division, Aróstegui 2013, pp. 693-694
  174. ^ Stanley G. Payne, Fascism in Spain, Madison 2000, ISBN 9780299165642, p. 269
  175. ^ there are scholars who claim that in specific cases, some "men were 'volunteers' only in name", namely when they were shamed by females from their village for not having volunteered yet, MacClancy 2000, p. 51. Degree of free will might be disputed also in the case of Republican POWs; e.g. it was a common practice in the Montserrat Terç that freshly taken prisoners were interrogated on the spot, and Catalans were offered to enlist before having been reported as POWs, Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 84
  176. ^ Catalonia, Robert Vallverdú i Martí, La metamorfosi del carlisme català: del "Déu, Pàtria i Rei" a l'Assamblea de Catalunya (1936-1975), Barcelona 2014, ISBN 9788498837261, p. 33
  177. ^ Germán Ruiz Llano, El voluntariado alavés durante la Guerra Civil [PhD thesis Universidad Complutense], Madrid 2016, pp. 109, 165
  178. ^ "minimo de sesenta mil", Jordi Canal i Morell, Banderas blancas, boinas rojas: una historia política del carlismo, 1876-1939, Madrid 2006, ISBN 9788496467347, p. 329
  179. ^ "El número de requetés encuadrados en los Tercios o en otras unidades menores y de segunda línea, pasó de los 70.000 en algunos momentos", Luis Redondo, Juan de Zavala, El requeté: la tradición no muere, Madrid 1957, p. 379; some earlier Carlist propaganda prints claimed even 100,000, compare "cien mil requetés de la última cruzada", José María Codon Fernández, Tradición y monarquia, Sevilla 1961, p. 17, and this figure is at times maintained - though not by professional historians - also recently, see Miguel Ayuso, El carlismo en la conspiración y guerra en España, [in:] Anales de la Fundación Francisco Elías de Tejada 12 (2006), p. 164
  180. ^ one scholar estimated that some 55% of requeté volunteers came from Navarre, Blinkhorn 2008, p. 256; according to another source, Navarrese volunteers alone were as many as 40,000, Redondo, Zavala, 1957
  181. ^ Javier Munoz-Basols, Manuel Delgado Morales, Laura Lonsdale, The Routledge Companion to Iberian Studies, London 2017, ISBN 9781317487319, p. 419, Isidora Dolores Ibárruri, Autobiography, New York 2005, ISBN 9780717804689, p. 181
  182. ^ Payne 2012, p. 184
  183. ^ summarised KIA losses by tercio as given by Aróstegui 2013, pp. 828-832; the author seems to lean towards a lower end of the estimates. For preference for the upper end see Ramón María Rodón Guinjoan, Invierno, primavera y otoño del carlismo (1939-1976) [PhD thesis Universitat Abat Oliba CEU], Barcelona 2015, p. 28. Some authors claim that there were "at least" 6,000 dead, see "nejméně 6 000 mužů", Jiří Chalupa, Poražení vítězové – konflikt z let 1936-39 jako „čtvrtá karlistická válka", [in:] Paulína Springerová (ed.), Sedmdesát let od vypuknutí španělské občanské války – vnitřní a vnější aspekty konfliktu, Hradec Králové 2007, ISBN 9788070417881, p. 12
  184. ^ Aróstegui 2013, pp. 828-832. The author provides the data with the reservation that they are „sin duda, una aproximación", p. 827. A more definite statement, with a strong preference for the upper limit of the estimates, in Rodón Guinjoan 2015, p. 28. In post-war Carlist propaganda the number of requete killed or wounded was even given as 40,000, referred after Rodón Guinjoan 2015, p. 353
  185. ^ Ascensión Badiola Ariztimuño, La represión franquista en el País Vasco. Cárceles, campos de concentración y batallones de trabajadores en el comienzo de la posguerra [PhD thesis Universidad del Pais Vasco], Bilbao 2015, p. 132
  186. ^ La represión en la retaguardia se cobró 12.500 vidas, [in:] El Periódico 14.10.06, available here l, also Blinkhorn 2008, p. 261
  187. ^ Aróstegui 2013, p. 696
  188. ^ Blinkhorn 2008, p. 261
  189. ^ “limpieza de desafectos”, Francisco Cobo Romero, La represión franquista en Andalucía: balance historiográfico, perspectivas teóricas y análisis de los resultados, Sevilla 2012, ISBN 9788493992606, p. 55
  190. ^ Fernando Mikelarena Peña, Cadena y mando de ejecutores de la represión de boina roja en Navarra en 1936, [in:] Historia Contemporánea 53 (2016), p. 595
  191. ^ Fernando Mikelarena Peña, Sin piedad. Limpieza política en Navarra. 1936, Pamplona 2015, ISBN 9788476819166, p. 50
  192. ^ Gutmaro Gómez Bravo, Jorge Marco, La obra de miedo. Violencia y sociedad en la España franquista (1936-1950), Barcelona 2011, ISBN 9788499420912, p. 53
  193. ^ Rafael Cruz, Olor a pólvora y patria. La limpieza política rebelde en el inicio de la guerra de 1936, [in:] Hispania Nova 7 (2007), see here
  194. ^ some claim that requeté “llevaron a cabo un trabajo sistemático de detenciones y aniquilación de las gentes de izquierda”, Nos solidarizamos con José Ramón Urtasun, autor de la exposición Navarra 1936, [in:] Change service 2016 [link blocked by Wikipedia]
  195. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, pp. 213, 217, 231-237
  196. ^ Requeté structures maintained “una gigantesca maquinaria informativa al servicio de la represión”, Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 210
  197. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 208. Colegio de los Escolapios served also as barracks of Requeté Auxiliar, Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 111
  198. ^ Badiola Ariztimuño 2015, pp. 143-144
  199. ^ the Escolapios prison was closed by December 1936,- Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 212
  200. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2016, p. 595
  201. ^ like gouging eyes out, Badiola Ariztimuño 2015, p. 143
  202. ^ Colegio de los Escolapios in Pamplona remained in total control of the Carlist Junta Central de Guerra. It was manned by members of Requeté Auxiliar, Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 111
  203. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 269
  204. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, pp. 111-116, 284-286; for requeté performing similar “sacas” in Vascongadas see e.g. Badiola Ariztimuño 2015, p. 122
  205. ^ Francisco Fernández de Mendiola, Isaac Puente: el médico anarquista, Tafalla 2007, ISBN 9788481364897, p. 38; requetés served as prison guards in other prisons, also in Biscay, Badiola Ariztimuño 2015, p. 182
  206. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 111
  207. ^ Bruno Ruiz de Apodaca, asesino franquista alaves, [in:] Cronicas a pie de fora service 29.10.16, [link blocked by Wikipedia]
  208. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 111
  209. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 208, Paul Preston, El holocausto español, Madrid 2011, ISBN 9788499920498, page unavailable, see here
  210. ^ Francisco Góngora, El alavés de los 108 asesinatos, [in:] El Correo 07.07.15, available here
  211. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 208
  212. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, pp. 209-210
  213. ^ Góngora 2015, Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 277
  214. ^ Fernández de Mendiola 2007, p. 38, also Carlos Gil Andrés, La zona gris de España azul, [in:] Ayer 76 (2009), p. 131
  215. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, pp. 87-88
  216. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 208, Preston 2011, available here
  217. ^ Iñaki Egaña, Los crímenes de Franco en Euskal Herria, 1936-1940, Tafalla 2009, ISBN 9788481365597, pp. 130-131, Mikelarena Peña 2015, pp. 168-175
  218. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 239
  219. ^ Mikel Aizpuru, Urko Apaolaza, Jesús Mari Gómez, Jon Odriozola, El otoño de 1936 en Guipúzcoa: los fusilamientos de Hernani, Zarautz 2007, ISBN 9788496643680, p. 171
  220. ^ Paul Preston, The Spanish Civil War, London 2007, ISBN 9780393345827, available here
  221. ^ Olaechea from the pulpit denounced the reported requeté practice of “matar unos rojillos cada vez que enterraban a uno de los suyos”, Julian Leal, La represión en la Guerra Civil causó más de 15.200 muertes en Extremadura, [in:] Foro por la Memoria service 2004, available here
  222. ^ Paul Preston, The Spanish Civil War, London 2007, ISBN 9780393345827, available here
  223. ^ Badiola Ariztimuño 2015, p. 132
  224. ^ Ezcurra was nominated jefe of Navarrese requeté on August 7, 1936, Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 266
  225. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 269
  226. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, pp. 269-284
  227. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, pp. 284-286
  228. ^ Góngora 2015
  229. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 141
  230. ^ Badiola Ariztimuño 2015, p. 143; “Carlist requetés making a republican lie in the form of a cross before hacking off his limbs to the cry of ‘Long live Christ the King!’” Antony Beevor, The Battle for Spain, London 2006, ISBN 9781101201206, available here
  231. ^ Blinkhorn 2008, p. 262
  232. ^ Blinkhorn 2008, p. 261
  233. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 141
  234. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, pp. 139-149
  235. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 21. The province was among these of the highest repressive ratio in the entire Nationalist zone, Mikelarena Peña 2015, pp. 22-23
  236. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2015, p. 112
  237. ^ Mikelarena Peña 2016, p. 595
  238. ^ referred after Manuel Martorell, Carlismo, historia oral y las ‘zonas oscuras’ de la Guerra Civil, [in:] Geronimo de Uztariz 23/24 (2008), p. 223, Edgar González Rúiz, Requetés y atrocidades del franquismo, [in:] Rebelion service19.03.06, available here
  239. ^ Jordi Canal, Banderas blancas, boinas rojas: una historia política del carlismo, 1876-1939, Madrid 2006, ISBN 9788496467347, p. 330
  240. ^ Canal 2000, p. 344
  241. ^ this was the case of Navarre in 1939, Aurora Villanueva Martínez, Organizacion, actividad y bases del carlismo navarro durante el primer franquismo [in:] Geronimo de Uztariz 19 (2003 ), p. 101
  242. ^ membership was not imposing. In 1945 the Pamplona Requeté organisation grouped some 180 members. In all Navarre Requeté cells existed – at least on paper – in 35 locations, Aurora Villanueva Martínez, Los incidentes del 3 de diciembre de 1945 en la Plaza del Castillo, [in:] Principe de Viana 58 (1997). In the early 1940s the Navarrese Requeté was plagued by disintegration and internal conflict between prominent leaders of the organisation, like Antonio Lizarza, Esteban Ezcurra, Juan Villanueva, Amadeo Marco, Benito Santesteban or Jaime del Burgo. Some scholars claim that Requeté drifted with no particular direction, apart that it sought independence from local political structures, Villanueva Martínez 2003, pp. 105, 108
  243. ^ see notes on "trabajos reorganizativos" of early 1940, inspired by the nationwide Carlist leadership. As usual, the Navarrese remained extremely cautious, anxious not to be subjected to external command, Villanueva Martínez 2003, p. 102-103
  244. ^ during early Francoism in Navarre "la oficialidad del Requete, que, en el clima de desmovilizacion social y politica de la posguerra, todavia conservaban en estos primeros anos ciertos niveles de conexion interna y politizacion, necesarios para producir pronunciamientos colectivos" Villanueva Martínez 2003, p. 102
  245. ^ Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 203
  246. ^ e.g. in 1944 the Navarrese organisation distributed leaflets calling for recruitment, Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 247
  247. ^ e.g. in 1946 one militant was nominated "sargento del Requeté", Josep Miralles Climent, La rebeldía carlista. Memoria de una represión silenciada: Enfrentamientos, marginación y persecución durante la primera mitad del régimen franquista (1936-1955), Madrid 2018, ISBN 9788416558711, p. 298
  248. ^ in the early 1940s the Navarrese organisation included so-called "Requeté Auxiliar", grouping older or less dedicated members, Villanueva Martínez 1997, p. 632; in 1942, also in Navarre, an "embrionaria organización de juventud carlista" emerged out of Requeté, Villanueva Martínez 2003, p. 105
  249. ^ following outbreak of the German-Soviet war some requeté ex-combatants expected CT at least to pronounce in favor of Germany. A number of requeté ex-combatants, like Amadeo Marco, Antonio Lizarza, Cesareo Sanz Orrio, Juan Villanueva and Mario Ozcoidi, on their own addressed the German and Italian consulates with their offer of assistance, Villanueva Martínez 2003, p. 103. Indeed, some requetés enlisted to División Azul, but officially the Carlist executive discouraged recruitment, Canal 2000, pp. 348-349
  250. ^ it is not clear who nurtured the vision of requeté gathering intelligence for the British. The plans must have been serious, since Fal Conde and the Navarrese leader Joaquín Baleztema formally prohibited such activity and demanded neutrality, Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 268
  251. ^ the print was named Boletín de Información del Requeté, Miralles Climent 2018, p. 158. It was undergoing the usual censorship and some issues were withdrawn, Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 326
  252. ^ historiographic literature and prints from the era often refer to "requetés" attending various rallies. However, it is not clear whether they were members of existing Requeté organisation or rather members of numerous ex-combatant associations, named Hermandades; many of them, grouping combatants from particular battalions, were set up in the 1940s; they usually had no political flavor, Canal 2000, p. 346. Moreover, members of the Carlist academic organisation AET also sported military-like uniforms, which made them almost undistinguishable from requeté, compare e.g. a photo of AET militants in Manuel Martorell Pérez, Carlos Hugo frente a Juan Carlos. La solución federal para España que Franco rechazó, Madrid 2014, ISBN 9788477682653, p. 40. Moreover, it seems that in the mid-1940s in some regions AET and Requeté sections were merged, see ID card reproduced in Martorell Pérez 2014, p. 44
  253. ^ they were typically commemorative annual rallies in Montserrat, Montejurra or Poblet, also the annual feast known as Mártires de la Tradición, or minor local events, Miralles Climent 2018, p. 167, Canal 2000, p. 347. Requetés usually appeared uniformed, though their gear was highly irregular, at times home-made, and worn out; participants admitted with regret that they were no match for perfectly uniformed Falange units, Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 233. Some claim that "even when, from 1959 on, uniformed requetés did begin to line up on the morning of Montejurra, the ceremony still remained much more relaxed than the strictly regulated events staged by the Government. Today ex-progresistas claim that these parades were far less disciplined and more shambolic than proud veteran requetés might like to admit", Jeremy MacClancy, An anthropological approach to carlism ritual. Montejurra during francoism, [in:] Violencias fraticidas: carlistas y liberales en el siglo XIX, Estella 2009, ISBN 9788423531653, p. 305
  254. ^ Martorell Pérez 2009, pp. 60-70, 197, Miralles Climent 2018, pp. 62-125
  255. ^ "en el conjunto periodo un 70% de los registros que hacen referencia a la resistencia a la Unificacíon mencionan al requeté" Mercedes Peñalba Sotorrío, Entre la boina roja y la camisa azul, Estella 2013, ISBN 9788423533657, p. 102. At times Requetés refused to share the barracks with Falange units, Peñalba Sotorrío 2012, p. 105
  256. ^ internal FET statistics of conflicts devised a number of rubrics the categorize them, with headings like "Falange exige el sometimiento al requeté", "Catalanismo del requeté", or "apoyo del clero al requeté", Peñalba Sotorrío 2012, pp. 100-103
  257. ^ e.g. in 1940 requeté militants used to visit bookstores and demand that books of José Antonio Primo de Rivera and other pro-Falangist prints be removed from windows, otherwise "the Requeté police will come and burn you down", Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 234
  258. ^ some Carlist militants apparently enjoyed the fights, e.g. an account from 1947 reads that "era fantástico". It seems that participants were not uniformed (except berets); also, the person in question referred to himself and his colleagues as "jóvenes" (not requetes), Miralles Climent 2018, pp. 264-265, 298. Some Carlist cells proudly reported these engagements as their key activities, Miralles Climent 2018, p. 171. See also Villanueva Martínez 2003, p. 107
  259. ^ Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 305. The leaders implicated were the member of local Navarrese Requeté leadership Juan Cruz Ancín, Miralles Climent 2018, p. 278, and Zamanillo, Villanueva Martínez 1997, p. 637
  260. ^ the last identified episode of street-fights involving requetés is from 1953, Miralles Climent 2018, p. 298
  261. ^ see e.g. a 1942 police report about "grupos clandestinos del Requeté", Miralles Climent 2018, p. 138. Some reports mention rather "elementos procedentes del antigue Requeté", which remain hostile to Caudillo, engage in subversive propaganda, and wear "their 'own' uniforms", Miralles Climent 2018, p. 131
  262. ^ Miralles Climent 2018, p. 382
  263. ^ Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 209
  264. ^ "solían ser seguidos y observados por policías o emisarios del Gobernador Civil", Miralles Climent 2018, p. 167, for sample see e.g. Pensamiento Alaves 25.01.40, available here. However, at times the rallies ended in detentions, e.g. following a 1945 Mártires de la Tradición sermon in Madrid there were 32 participants detained; some were later sent to labor camps, Miralles Climent 2018, p. 167. At times even commemorative requeté rallies were banned, e.g. in 1946 the administration prohibited a Carlist rally in Vilalba de los Arcos, intended to honor the dead fallen during the battle of 1938; the order was enforced by Guardia Civil, Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 320. At times officials who had permitted them were admonished, Miralles Climent 2018, p. 334. An attempt to open Museo del Requeté in Seville ended up in administrative forbiddance, Miralles Climent 2018, p. 393
  265. ^ Miralles Climent 2018, p. 298
  266. ^ this was the case of Luis Elizalde, Miralles Climent 2018, p. 396
  267. ^ the Carloctavistas formed a uniformed group styled as "Tercio Carlos VII". Some scholars claim that as most members of the public did not distinguish between various currents within Carlism, appearances of "Tercio Carlos VII" helped to enhance the public image of Carlism as such, Rodón Guinjoan 2015, p. 135
  268. ^ the Montejurra gathering of 1954 was reportedly attended by 12,000 requetés, García Riol 2015, p. 42. The figure seems overstated if applied strictly to Requeté members; it is not clear whether there were 12,000 requetés in the entire Spain. The figure might stand also for ex-combatants or simply for militant Carlists
  269. ^ , there were even much older Requeté members present in the organisation. Perhaps a unique case was this of Perico Olaortúa, a metalworking industry worker from Biscay, who was an active requeté in 1909, Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 411
  270. ^ Canal 2000, p. 356
  271. ^ e.g. in the early 1950s the Requeté jefé in Catalonia was Jesús Calderón, Vallverdú i Martí 2014, p. 136
  272. ^ e.g. in the town of Tudela, in the Carlist heartland Navarre, there was a group of requetés active in the early 1940s; in 1941 and posing as part of the state party, they issued an own bulletin, compare Todocolección service, available here. However, at some point later on the cell disappeared and there was no requeté group operational in the city until 1961, Mercedes Vázquez de Prada, La oposición al colaboracionismo carlista en Navarra, [in:] Príncipe de Viana 262 (2015), p. 800
  273. ^ e.g. during the carefully prepared inaugural address of Don Carlos Hugo at the summit of Montejurra in 1957, it was not the Requeté members but the AET affiliates who formed a personal guard of the prince, Martorell Pérez 2014, p. 87
  274. ^ García Riol 2015, p. 42
  275. ^ Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 435
  276. ^ Jacek Bartyzel, Żołnierz Tradycji. José Arturo Márquez de Prado (1924-2017), [in:] Myśl Konserwatywna service 20.06.17, available here
  277. ^ Vázquez de Prada 2016, pp. 72-74; for decisively anti-Juanista stand of Requeté, see also García Riol 2015, pp. 206-207. However, the 1959-established ex-requeté organisation Hermandad Nacional Monárquica del Maestrazgo was strongly leaning towards Don Juan, Ramón Rodón Guinjoan, Una aproximación al estudio de la Hermandad Nacional Monárquica del Maestrazgo y del Partido Social Regionalista, [in:] Aportes 88 (2015), p. 171. Also, the Alfonsist press was careful to note all cases of alleged requeté support for Don Juan, see e.g. ABC 15.05.66, available here
  278. ^ Mercedes Vázquez de Prada, El papel del carlismo navarro en el inicio de la fragmentación definitiva de la comunión tradicionalista (1957-1960), [in:] Príncipe de Viana 72 (2011), p. 405
  279. ^ Mercedes Vázquez de Prada, El final de una ilusión. Auge y declive del tradicionalismo carlista (1957-1967), Madrid 2016, ISBN 9788416558407, pp. 72-74
  280. ^ Vázquez de Prada 2016, p. 95
  281. ^ José Martín Brocos Fernández, José Arturo Márquez de Prado y Pareja, [in:] Real Academia de Historia service, available here, also Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 435, Vázquez de Prada 2016, p. 120
  282. ^ Miguel Ayuso, El ultimo jefe de requetes, [in:] ABC 13.06.17, available here
  283. ^ Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 30
  284. ^ Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 476
  285. ^ Márquez de Prado first met Carlos Hugo in 1962. He concluded that the prince was unstable, had little if any public experience, no firm religious education, did not like history, did not know Carlism, did not know how to deal with people and the local Carlist jefes, and that in general, he was of "much smaller format" than his father, Vázquez de Prada 2016, p. 160
  286. ^ in the mid-1960s the purpose of Requeté was officially defined as "defender la integridad de nuestros sacrosantos ideales", which leads a present-day scholar to suppose that the organisation was gradually turning into sort of an internal Carlist "order of the faithful", "como una orden de caballería vinculada por sus juramentos, promesas y devoción a la la defensa de un ideario cuyo fundamento último era de orden espiritual", Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 122. See also "se podría afirmar que los Requetés se consideraban así mismos como los garantes de las más puras esencias del Carlismo. Eran "los cruzados de la Causa", los depositarios de la espiritualidad y la acción de todo lo carlista", García Riol 2015, p. 309
  287. ^ in the early 1960s Carlos Hugo, freshly arrived from France, was briefly hosted by Márquez de Prado. The then political guide of the prince, Massó, was seriously concerned that Márquez might ruin all of his own formative work, done to turn Carlos Hugo into a progressist, new-style Carlist. Massó judged that Márquez "estaba obsesionado con la guerra subversiva contrarrevolucionaria" and that he had to be isolated and contained. Eventually, Massó and his team "a los del Requetés de Pepe Arturo [Márquez de Prado] no les hacíamos ni caso; la gente que cogíamos era gente nueva o gente recuperada", Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 476
  288. ^ Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 476
  289. ^ "Pepe Arturo [Márquez de Prado], era un hombre que necesitaba decir que la Universidad la controlaba él; era gente muy effectiva pero poco preparada políticamente; estaban al margen del carlismo de entonces, seguían pensando en un carlismo de guerra", opinion of one of the Huguistas, referred after Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 477
  290. ^ Juan Zavala Castella (1915-1975) was a requeté commander during the war and a professional military later, which might seem hardly compatible with Huguista concerns about excessive Requeté militarisation. He was the older brother of José María Zavala Castella (29 year old at the time), who formed the Huguista hard political core. Deputy jefé delegado was suggested to be José Cruz de Berasaluce, Vázquez de Prada 2016, p. 197
  291. ^ in late 1963 Márquez de Prado asked Valiente that local requeté jefes be appointed directly by Delegación Nacional de Requetés (it is not clear what was the mechanism of their appointments before). The Navarrese jefé Astraín claimed that Zamanillo was the true author of the concept, and warned Valiente that in Navarre there already was "Consejo del Requeté", bent on confronting political Comunión structures, Vázquez de Prada 2016, p. 190
  292. ^ Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 80-81. Elsewhere the author points to existence of the entire body, named Delegación Nacional, Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 45
  293. ^ in 1962 Secretaría Nacional was divided into 4 departments, and one of them was for Requeté, Vázquez de Prada 2016, p. 165
  294. ^ in 1963 all party financial needs were estimated at 2,8m ptas; the Requeté needs were specified as 0,1m, Vázquez de Prada 2016, p. 178
  295. ^ at the same time he received from the claimant the Orden de la Legitimidad Proscrita, the highest Carlist award, Miguel Ayuso, El ultimo jefe de requetes, [in:] ABC 13.06.17, available here. It is not clear whether his decoration during the year of his destitution was the mark of disorientation within the party ranks, internal struggle, or cynical manoeuvring intended to ensure his compliance
  296. ^ Miralles Climent 2015, p. 223, Vázquez de Prada 2016, p. 251. Hermenegildo García Llorente was appointed "delegado adjunto", Sixto Barranco "delegado de infanteria militar", José Luis Díaz Iribarren secretary, Andrés Olona de Armenteras "inspector" and Emilió Marín de Burgos "inspector de pelayos", which suggests that the infantile section of Pelayos existed as sub-division of Requeté, Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 126. Miguel de San Cristobál Ursua (1909-1993) was a landholder and aristocrat from Falces in southern Navarre; he is one of the least known Carlist militants of the era and one of the oldest members of the Huguista faction. A wartime requeté combatant, it seems that in the mid-1960s he was either disoriented or meek; when confronted with fronda within Requeté he asked Valiente for advice; the party leader suggested that Zavala was to deal with internal party matters and that San Cristobál should focus on propaganda issues, Vázquez de Prada 2016, p. 256. His later address at the summit of Montejurra, which caused enormous resistance among the Traditionalists, was most likely written by someone else, Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 89
  297. ^ Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 98
  298. ^ San Cristobál demanded that local juntas be formalized on all lower levels. He also launched preparations for political instruction classes ("cursos de formación") and asked to create delegates for sports and infantile sub-sections. He declared that Junta Nacional would be busy mostly with information and propaganda, Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 124
  299. ^ during the 1965 Asamblea Nacional de Requetés San Cristobál issued instructions to "crear un aorganización propia para su actuación dentro de un terreno de semi-clandestinidad"; so-called "grupos de acción" were to be formed in every province. They were supposed to engage in 5 types of activity: 1) organization; 2) education; 3) psychological warfare; 4) technical instruction (shooting, explosives, radiocommunication, driving, topography) and 5) defense (espionage, counter-espionage, judicial action), Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 125
  300. ^ during the Congress the attendees were asked to vote for one of 4 future paths of Requeté development. The buildup of "Grupos de Acción" was supported by 104 participants, with other options being that Requeté becomes an organisation "político-militar" (94), "social" (42), and "militar" (28), García Riol 2015, pp. 474-475
  301. ^ both the position of Delegado Nacional de Requetés was abandoned and the entire Delegación Nacional de Requetés was dissolved, Miralles Climent 2015, p. 224, Vázquez de Prada 2016, p. 275
  302. ^ Vallverdú i Martí 2014, p. 199
  303. ^ the 1965 address delivered by San Cristobál at Montejurra was one of the most controversial ever recorded during the history of the rally, Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 89. The Traditionalists considered it scandalous as they perceived it as dismantling the basis of requeté identity. San Cristobal caused outrage as he declared that "con nuestros hijos están también, con nosotros, muchos hijos de quienes fueron nuestros enemigos hace veinticinco [in other accounts: veintitantos] años. Figuran entre las altas personalidades del carlismo hombres cuyos padres fueron fusilados por los nacionales", Martorell Pérez 2014, p. 210. It is not clear who personally was evoked in the second sentence. Full text of his address in Montejurra I/7 (1965), pp. 18-19
  304. ^ already in 1965 the Madrid Junta Provincial of Requeté protested against Secretaria taking all control of movement branches, Martorell Pérez 2009, p. 478; in 1968 the same Madrid branch issued manifestos against "camarilla" of Carlos Hugo manipulating the movement into a subversive, left-wing direction, Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 230
  305. ^ Vázquez de Prada 2016, p. 255
  306. ^ Vázquez de Prada 2016, p. 279
  307. ^ Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 121, see also p. 127
  308. ^ Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 77
  309. ^ Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 303
  310. ^ e.g. in 1971 a new Catalan executive did not include a representative for requeté, Vallverdú i Martí 2014, p. 226
  311. ^ until 1962 the nationwide organisation of ex-requeté combatants was led by Zamanillo; he was then succeeded by Julio Pérez Salas, Carlos Ponce de León, and since 1965 by Ignacio Romero Osborne, Marquéz de Marchellina (1903-1985), Canal 2000, p. 357
  312. ^ in 1971 a group signed as Dirección Nacional de Acción Política y Participación demanded immediate dismissal of Manuel Piorno, José María Zavala, Juan J. Palomino, Marqués de Marchelina, Elías Querejeta, Ricardo Ruiz de Gauna, Gabriel Zubiaga, Rafael Ferrando and Luis Doreste Machado, it is all members of Junta de la Hermandad Nacional de Antiguos Combatientes de Tercios de Requetés. Once Marchelina dismissed the claim the organisation premised were raided by police on grounds of subversive activity suspicion, and were eventually handed to Comisión Reorganizadora, headed by the one of the rebels, José María Codón. Merchelina set up a shadow organisation in France, García Riol 2015, pp. 313-320, The entire ex-combatant movement was always prone to fragmentation, e.g. in 1959 some pro-Juanista Carlists set up Hermandad Nacional Monárquica del Maestrazgo, Ramón Rodón Guinjoan, Una aproximación al estudio de la Hermandad Nacional Monárquica del Maestrazgo y del Partido Social Regionalista, [in:] Aportes: Revista de historia contemporánea 30/88 (2015), p. 171. Hermandad de Cristo Rey, another organisation created in 1962, was also from the onset tending towards Juanismo, Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 37. In 1968 it issued a statement that Carlos Hugo was "neither a Spaniard nor a Carlist heir", García Riol 2015, p. 239
  313. ^ García Riol 2015, pp. 313-320
  314. ^ e.g. in 1969 representatives of Hermandad de Maestrazgo were admitted by Don Juan Carlos shortly after his taking oath as the future king of Spain, Rodón Guinjoan 2015, p. 177
  315. ^ Hermandad de Maestrazgo was revitalized in the 1970s, possibly in collusion with state services, as the new Carlist pro-Francoist organization, Canal 2000, p. 374. It remained very active until 1973, Vallverdú i Martí 2014, pp. 262-263. Some scholars refer to "Operación Maestrazgo", a state-aided attempt to re-channel Carlist mobilisation from Partido Carlista to new, pro-Francoist structures, Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, pp. 193, 234-237
  316. ^ a lengthy 1971 document named Declaracíon al I Congreso del Pueblo Carlista did not mtention Requeté a single time, Josep Carles Clemente, Historia del carlismo contemporaneo, 1935-1972, Barcelona 1977, ISBN 8425307597, pp. 327-336. Another lengthy document from 1972, Linea ideológica del carlismo, approved at the II Congreso del Pueblo Carlista, contained outline of the party organization but failed to mention Requeté, Clemente 1977, pp. 342-350
  317. ^ Miralles Climent 2015, p. 515
  318. ^ Miralles Climent 2015, p. 272
  319. ^ Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, pp. 230-232, García Riol 2015, p. 321
  320. ^ Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 158. At one point it seemed that even San Cristobál might get involved; in 1972 Fal Conde corresponded with San Cristobál on re-establishing Carlist structures based on a Requeté organization, Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 180
  321. ^ other signatories included Hermenegildo García Llorente, José María Vázquez de Prada Juárez, Luis Ulloa Messeguer, Antonio Fernández Cortés and Federico Ferrando Sales, García Riol 2015, p. 323.
  322. ^ Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 138
  323. ^ Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 271
  324. ^ Caspistegui Gorasurreta 1997, p. 264
  325. ^ the episode is highly unclear, though most sources point to foreign mercenaries and aged former combatants rather than to young militants involved on part of Don Sixto. Some, however, assume their presence and speculate that the shooting might have been accidental, as "jóvenes requetés que se hallaban con don Sixto no tenían verdadera instrucción militar" and might have fired in panic, Rodón Guinjoan 2015, p. 623
  326. ^ ABC 17.11.81, available here
  327. ^ the specific date was related to the 50th anniversary of the Carlist rally at an estate known as Quintillo, which at the time sent shock waves across most of Spain, ABC 18.05.84, available here
  328. ^ e.g. a Navarrese Hermandad de Caballeros Voluntarios de la Cruz used to organize public sermons in Pamplona in the late 1970s, Fernando Mikelarena, Víctor Moreno, José Ramón Urtasun, Carlos Martínez, Pablo Ibáñez, Txema Aranaz, ¿Qué esconde la Hermandad de Caballeros Voluntarios de la Cruz?, [in:] NuevaTribuna service 22.10.18, available here, but later moved to rather defensive positions, e.g. protesting against perceived attempts to wipe them out form history, Fernando Mikelarena, Víctor Moreno, José Ramón Urtasun, Pablo Ibáñez, Carlos Martínez, Ángel Zoco, La connivencia de la Iglesia con la Hermandad de Caballeros Voluntarios de la Cruz, [in:] NuevaTribuna service 31.10.18, available here
  329. ^ e.g. Hermandad del Tercio de Requetés de Nuestra Senyora de Montserrat was and is legal owner of the Requeté Mausoleum, built in the Montserrat complex. In the early 1990s it re-published an account of the wartime past of the battalion, Salvador Nonel Brú, El Laureado Tercio de Requetés de Nuestra Senyora de Montserrat, Barcelona 1992
  330. ^ ABC 25.09.14, available here
  331. ^ see e.g. the death notice reproduced in Ha mort Felio Vilarrubias Solanes, glòria catalana d'Espanya, [in:] DolcaCatalunya blog 10.04.19, available here
  332. ^ for samples in popular press see e.g. Raúl Limón, Los campos de concentración de Franco: así eran y así se sobrevivía, [in:] El País 08.09.15, available here, Federico Cocho, Lo que pasó en Galicia prueba la intención exterminadora del golpe, [in:] El Mundo07.08.11, available here, Leandro Alvarez Rey, La represión franquista en Andalucía fue un genocidio, [in:] El Diario 15.10.16, available here
  333. ^ the monument bore an inscription “Recuerdo de la 4. ca del Requeté Alavés / Excmo. Ayuntamiento de Montragón (Guipúzcoa) 8 Oct. 1936”, Altar de requetés en Isuskitza, [in:] Frentes de Euzkadi service 08.02.09 (link to http://frentesdeeuzkadi... blocked by WP)
  334. ^ the original stone which honored Joaquín Muruzabal, considered the first fallen requeté of the civil war, was erected in late 1936, see Francisco Javier Lizaraza Inda, [in:] Fundación Ignacio Larramendi service, available here. It was destroyed by unknown perpetrators after the fall of Francoism. The local Carlist group re-erected the stone, which was also destroyed some time afterwards. The third stone was erected in the place in 2018, see e.g. Acto en memoria del Requeté, Joaquín Muruzábal, caído en Leiza (Navarra) en 1936, [in:] Navarra Informaciónes 25.08.12, available here
  335. ^ Xurxo M. Ayán Vila, Sonia García Rodríguez, Ha llegado España: Arqueología de la memoria nacionalcatólica en Euskadi, [in:] Arqueo Web 17 (2016), pp. 206-238
  336. ^ Acció antifeixista de recuperació de la Memòria Històrica, [in:] Indymedia service 03.09.05, available here
  337. ^ Ernai derriba por la fuerza una cruz franquista en Ondarroa, [in:] Cadenaser service 14.01.19, available here
  338. ^ e.g. in Bilbao the local self-governments removed names like “Calle Tercio Ortiz de Zárate”, “Calle Tercio N.S. del Camino”, Jesús Alonso Carballés, La evolución de la memoria de la Guerra Civil en el espacio urbano de Bilbao: una mirada comparativa, [in:] Cahiers de civilisation espagnole contemporaine 5 (2009), available online here
  339. ^ e.g. the Madrid authorities re-named a street commemorating a local requeté Aurelio González de Gregorio, Antonio Ortiz Mateos, Pervivencia del franquismo en el callejero madrileño, Madrid 2015, p. 20
  340. ^ e.g. in the town of Beasaín a street named “Calle Oriamendi” has been re-named, Aitor González de Langarica Mendizábal, Virginia López de Maturana Diéguez, Catálogo de símbolos y monumentos públicos extistentes en Euskadi que supongan una exaltación de la Guerra Civil y de la Dictadura, Vitoria-Gazteiz 2016
  341. ^ e.g. in the town of Andoaín a bridge named “Puente de Navarra” is considered remnant of the Francoist heritage; before 1936 the bridge was named “Puente del Matadero Viejo”. Similarly, in Elgoibar “Plaza Navarra” is marked for removal, González de Langarica, López de Maturana 2016, pp. 222, 273
  342. ^ see González de Langarica, López de Maturana 2016
  343. ^ this was the case of a Zaragoza street honoring Agustina Simón in Zaragoza, a Carlist Margarita captured by the Republicans during the battle of Belchite and executed. As municipal authorities have not re-named the street, the Spanish Senate investigated the delay, El Senado pide explicaciones al Ayuntamiento de Zaragoza por mantener a catorce franquistas en su callejero, [in:] Publico service 24.05.20, available here
  344. ^ it was originally claimed that the name honors the requeté unit Tercio de Montejurra; eventually it was agreed that the name refers to a mountain in Navarre, site of a bloody civil war battle of 1873 and a Carlist icon, and as such does not fall into the remnants of Francoism rubric, Manuel Martorell, "Patinazo histórico" al calificar de franquista la batalla de Montejurra, ocurrida en 1873, [in:] CuartoPoder service 12.02.16, available here
  345. ^ e.g. in the town of Codo, site of heavy battle fought by the requeté Tercio de Montserrat, the street which honored the unit was re-named to “Calle Montserrat”
  346. ^ Santander comienza a retirar los monumentos a las Legiones Italianas y a los Caídos en la IV División de Navarra, [in:] El Diario Cantabria 10.01.17, available here
  347. ^ José Domínguez, Bilbao eliminará el último vestigio franquista que hay en su territorio, [in:] El Correo service 02.05.18, available here
  348. ^ Aitor Zabala, Adiós a los símbolos franquistas, [in:] El Diario Vasco 05.03.14, available here
  349. ^ Mercedes Vázquez de Prada Tife, La guerra civil. Historia Ilustrada de Navarra, Pamplona 1993, ISBN 8460474135, p. 614
  350. ^ wherever possible, inscriptions have been covered with sheets of material or plaster; however, some items - like a huge painting on the cupola - are still visible
  351. ^ Jokin Lekumberri, ‘Los Caídos’, el enorme monumento franquista que podría ser derribado, [in:] La Vanguardia 10.05.20, available here
  352. ^ NA+ apuesta por mantener el edificio de Los Caídos de Pamplona, recuperar su uso y reurbanizar la zona, [in:] Navarra Informaciones 01.07.20, available here
  353. ^ Pablo Planas, "Descubren" otro mausoleo franquista en el monasterio de Montserrat, [in:] Libertad Digital 23.08.18, available here
  354. ^ El monumento de los requetés de Montserrat que el Parlament quiere retirar, [in:] El Nacional service 18.10.18, available here
  355. ^ Piden a Subdelegación que prohíba acto fascista en el cementerio de Granada, [in:] La Vanguardia 15.07.20, available here.
  356. ^ Celebración del 18 de Julio en Granada, [in:] Reino de Granada service 20.07.20 (link to https://reinodegranada... blocked by WP)
  357. ^ in 2018 a copy of previously destroyed stone - currently the third one - has been erected. For the original stone, erected in 1936, see here
  358. ^ for a sample, see here
  359. ^ Jaime Ignacio del Burgo requiere a la presidenta del parlamento de navarra para que retire el cuadro de una exposicion que calumnia, [in:] La Tribuna del País Vasco service 19.04.16, available here
  360. ^ the president of Navarrese parliament Aihnoa Aznáres declared that "no es cierto que en dichos textos se diga que la sublevación del 19 de julio en Pamplona y la posterior represión fue responsabilidad de los requetés carlistas de Del Burgo", Del Burgo se da por satisfecho tras el acto de conciliación con Ainhoa Aznárez en el juzgado, [in:] Navarra El Español service 17.06.16, available here
  361. ^ see a compilation of press snippets in a brochure Madrid carlista. Especial debate. Hoja informative del Partido Carlista de Madrid, Madrid 2017, available online here
  362. ^ Fernando Mikelarena, Víctor Moreno, José Ramón Urtasun, Carlos Martínez, Pablo Ibáñez, Txema Aranaz, Polifonía del negacionismo carlista, [in:] LibertaTe service 20.01.17, available here
  363. ^ Beatriz Arnedo, Navarra Suma demandará al socialista Santos Cerdán por llamar "fascista" a Iñaki Iriarte, [in:] Diario de Navarra service 21.10.19, available here l
  364. ^ Moncloa no ve delito en el acto de Leitza al primer requeté muerto tras el golpe de 1936, [in:] Noticias de Navarra 01.02.20, available here
  365. ^ in Navarrese cities located within the Basque ethnic zone, like Vera de Bidasoa, Elizondo or Leitza, Bildu councillors ar usually most vehement when it comes to eradicating Carlist heritage. For a sample related to Leitza see Martxelo Díaz, El Gobierno no ve delito en el acto de exaltación fascista de Leitza, [in:] Naíz 31.01.20, available 66jkl77. The campaign is part of the general Bildu stand against the Spanish rule in Navarre, see e.g. David López Fríaz, En el archipiélago navarro de Bildu: pueblos donde se odia todo lo español pero se insulta en castellano, [in:] El Español 03.08.19, available here
  366. ^ see numerous articles aimed against Carlism at the official web page of Ateneo Basilio Lacort, available here
  367. ^ see numerous articles aimed against Carlism at the official web page of Asociación, available here
  368. ^ for references to requeté crimes and atrocities in general works on rearguard violence during the Spanish civil war see e.g. Paul Preston, El holocausto español, Madrid 2017, ISBN 9788483068526. Numerous works refer to requeté terror against the Basque population, see e.g. Iñaki Egaña, Los crímenes de Franco en Euskal Herria, 1936-1940, Pamplona 2009, ISBN 9788481365597, though also works focused on other regions list requetés as agents of terror, for Andalusia see e.g. Francisco Cobo Romero, La represión franquista en Andalucía: balance historiográfico, perspectivas teóricas y análisis de los resultados, Sevilla 2012, ISBN 9788493992606. Even some works focused on specific municipalities provide accounts of requeté violence, see e.g. Gabriel García de Consuegra Muñoz, Fernando López López, Angel López López, La represión en Pozoblanco (guerra civil y posguerra), Córdoba 1989, ISBN 8486137160
  369. ^ the key example is Fernando Mikelarena Peña, Sin piedad: Limpieza política en Navarra, 1936. Responsables, colaboradores y ejecutores, Pamplona 2015, ISBN 9788476819166. Numerous other works published by the Navarrese publishing house Editorial Pamiela contain accounts of requeté violence
  370. ^ see e.g. numerous articles published on the official website of Comunión Tradicionalista, available here
  371. ^ see e.g. Patxi Ventura, Respuesta al Ateneo Basilio Lacort y a las reflexiones de sus miembros, [in:] Partido Carlista service, available here
  372. ^ “en los últimos años de ha hablado mucho de lo que se ha llamado ‘la memoria histórica’, aunque lo que se indica normalmente por este término no tiene nada que ver ni con la memoria ni con la historia. La verdadera memoria es un recuerdo individual de las personas que hav vivido y [asado por une experiencia determinada”, wrote Stanley G. Payne in his prologue to a 950-page volume containing wartime recollections of requetés and margaritas; none of them contains paragraphs on repressive actions, Pablo Larraz Andía, Víctor Sierra-Sesumaga, Requetés: de las trincheras al olvido, Madrid 2011, ISBN 9788499700465, p. 11
  373. ^ see e.g. calculations of José Manuel Pérez Carrera, referred after Manuel Morales, 70 novelas al año en España sobre la Guerra Civil, [in:] El Pais 19.10.18
  374. ^ Carlism is mentioned just once in Raquel Macciuci, María Teresa Pochat (eds.), Entre la memoria propia y la ajena. Tendencias y debates en la narrativa española actual, La Plata 2010. It is entirely missing in Mar Langa Pizarro, La novela histórica española en la transicióñ y en la democracia, [in:] Anales de Literatura Española 17 (2004), pp. 107-120
  375. ^ "moros y requetés" are twice listed among victorious Nationalist troops entering Mágina, a fictitious town identified by scholars as Úbeda; it was the moment which commenced Francoism in the town, the period depicted in the novel as a dark period of hopeless misery
  376. ^ in the novel a requeté is dancing over the grave of a Communist guerillero. The writer in public dubbed the Carlists “fascists”, see interview with Almudena Grandes, El País 13.2.16
  377. ^ among Manichean personalities of the novel requetés and Carlists are presented as villains. "La caracterización de los personajes de esta obra es, con frecuencia, maniquea y estereotipada. A quienes vivieron en tiempos de la Guerra Civil el autor los separa en grupos contrapuestos: vencedores y vencidos", Amaia Serrano Mariezkurrena, La memoria histórica inspiradora de la ficción en Antzararen Bidea (El camino de la oca) de Jokin Muñoz, [working paper delivered at a Conference Siglos XX y XXI. Memoria del I Congreso Internacional de Literatura y Cultura Españolas Contemporaneas, La Plata 2008], no pagination
  378. ^ the novel is based on a true story of Ignacio Larramendi. Its protagonist is a teenage boy who travels across the war mayhem trying to find his older requeté brother. The author is a former ETA member
  379. ^ Pascual Tamburri, Falsificar el carlismo para combatir lo mejor de sus ideales, [in:] La Tribuna del País Vasco service 03.01.17, available here

Further reading[]

  • Julio Aróstegui, Combatientes Requetés en la Guerra Civil española, 1936-1939, Madrid 2013, ISBN 9788499709758
  • Julio Aróstegui, La tradición militar del carlismo y el origen del Requeté, [in:] Aportes 8 (1988), pp. 3–24
  • Martin Blinkhorn, Carlism and Crisis in Spain 1931-1939, Cambridge 2008, ISBN 9780521207294
  • Eduardo G. Calleja, Julio Aróstegui, La tradición recuperada. El Requeté carlista y la insurrección, [in:] Historia contemporánea 11 (1994), pp. 29–54
  • Francisco Javier Caspistegui Gorasurreta, El naufragio de las ortodoxias. El carlismo, 1962–1977, Pamplona 1997, ISBN 9788431315641
  • Josep Carles Clemente, La insurgencia carlista. Los grupos armados del carlismo: el Requeté, los G.A.C. y las F.A.R.C., Cuenca 2016, ISBN 9788416373031
  • Manuel Ferrer Muñoz, Carlismo y violencia en la II República: 1931-36, la organización del Requeté vasco-navarro, [in:] Historia 16/194 (1992), pp. 12–20
  • Maximiliano García Venero, Historia de la Unificación, Madrid 1970
  • Eduardo González Calleja, Contrarrevolucionarios. Radicalización violenta de las derechas durante la Segunda República 1931-1936, Madrid 2011, ISBN 9788420664552
  • Eduardo González Calleja, Paramilitarització i violencia politica a l'Espanya del primer terc de segle: el requeté tradicionalista (1900-1936) , [in:] Revista de Girona 147 (1991), pp. 69–76
  • Eduardo González Calleja, La razón de la fuerza: orden público, subversión y violencia política en la España de la Restauración, Madrid 1998, ISBN 9788400077785
  • Daniel Jesús García Riol, La resistencia tradicionalista a la renovación ideológica del carlismo (1965-1973) [PhD thesis UNED], Madrid 2015
  • Pablo Larraz Andía, Víctor Sierra-Sesumaga, Requetés: de las trincheras al olvido, Madrid 2011, ISBN 9788499700465
  • Jeremy MacClancy, The Decline of Carlism, Reno 2000, ISBN 9780874173444
  • Manuel Martorell Pérez, La continuidad ideológica del carlismo tras la Guerra Civil [PhD thesis UNED], Valencia 2009
  • Manuel Martorell Pérez, Retorno a la lealtad; el desafío carlista al franquismo, Madrid 2010, ISBN 9788497391115
  • Josep Miralles Climent, El Carlismo frente al estado español: rebelión, cultura y lucha política, Madrid 2004, ISBN 9788475600864
  • Josep Miralles Climent, El carlismo militante (1965-1980). Del tradicionalismo al socialismo autogestionario [PhD thesis Universidad Jaume I], Castellón 2015
  • Josep Miralles Climent, La rebeldía carlista. Memoria de una represión silenciada: Enfrentamientos, marginación y persecución durante la primera mitad del régimen franquista (1936-1955), Madrid 2018, ISBN 9788416558711
  • Ramón María Rodón Guinjoan, Invierno, primavera y otoño del carlismo (1939-1976) [PhD thesis Universitat Abat Oliba CEU], Barcelona 2015
  • Ferrán Sánchez Agustí, El Requetè contra Franco: el carloctavisme, [in:] Daniel Montañá Buchaca, Josep Rafart Canals (eds.) El carlisme ahir i avui, Berga 2013, ISBN 9788494101700, pp. 167–178
  • Robert Vallverdú i Martí, La metamorfosi del carlisme català: del "Déu, Pàtria i Rei" a l'Assamblea de Catalunya (1936-1975) , Barcelona 2014, ISBN 9788498837261
  • Mercedes Vázquez de Prada, El final de una ilusión. Auge y declive del tradicionalismo carlista (1957-1967) , Madrid 2016, ISBN 9788416558407
  • Aurora Villanueva Martínez, Organizacion, actividad y bases del carlismo navarro durante el primer franquismo, [in:] Geronimo de Uztariz 19 (2003), pp. 97–117

External links[]

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