Violence against transgender people in the United States

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Poster from the Drag March for Change in Chicago, Illinois. The march was held in June 2020.

Violence against transgender people in the United States includes sexual, physical, and emotional violence. These acts of gender-based violence may result in the death of a transgender person. The stigma surrounding the transgender community and those who are gender non-conforming accompanied by the assumption of their sexual orientation is often cited as the reason for these brutal acts.[1][failed verification] Transgender people are more likely to be violently attacked than cisgender ones.[2] The murder rate for transgender individuals is estimated to be lower than that of cisgender people, though the trend is reversed for young black or Latina transgender women.[3] Between 2008 and 2020, 271 murders on trans people were reported in USA, giving ca 0.83 murders per 1'000'000 inhabitants and placing USA somewhere in the middle between "safe" and "unsafe" states, with reservation for inaccuracies and possible underreporting from some locations. [4]

Sexual violence[]

Sexual violence is defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as an "experience of a sexual act (e.g., rape, unwanted sexual touching, pressure or coercion to engage in sexual acts) committed against an individual without their freely given consent".[5] The documentation of sexual assault cases against transgender individuals is limited. According to the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey, 37% of transgender women and 51% of transgender men have been sexually assaulted in their lifetime.[6]

Instances of sexual violence against transgender women happen for the first time at the median age of 15 years old.[7] The notion that transgender youth are more likely to experience acts of sexual violence has been verified by several other studies. These acts occur most often by peers and other young people. This is attributed to the way that their peers view their gender identity.[1][failed verification]

Perpetrators of sexual violence against transgender women are often known by the victim, in some instances they are romantic partners or family members.[8] A 2005 study found that, out of the instances reported by the transgender men and women, 90% of the participants said that they had been sexually assaulted by a cisgender man. Around 30% of the participants also reported being sexually assaulted at some time by a cisgender woman and 16% reported being assaulted by another transgender individual.[9]

Physical violence[]

Physical violence in this context is used to describe any physical interaction between two or more individuals with the intent to cause bodily harm. Physical violence against the transgender community occurs at a rate similar to that of sexual violence.[10] A study of transgender individuals in Virginia, published in 2007, found that 40% of those interviewed had experienced an instance of physical violence. Around 69% of such attacks were, according to interviewees, due to their gender identity. The assaults occurred at a median age of 16 and were reported as early as 13 years old. Of those participants who reported at least one assault, at least 12% said they had experienced over 20 instances of physical violence in their lifetime.[7]

A study published in 2021 by the Williams Institute at UCLA School of Law found that transgender people in the United States are more likely to be violently attacked than cisgender people. The study found 86.1 attacks for every 1,000 transgender women and 23.7 attacks for every 1,000 cisgender women; it also found 107.5 attacks for every 1,000 transgender men and 19.8 attacks for every 1,000 cisgender men.[2]

Transgender women who are sex workers experience a disproportionately higher level of violence in the United States.[10] A study of transgender female sex workers conducted in Washington, D.C., found that approximately 65% of those interviewed reported an instance of physical assault, most often by their customers.[11] When asked why they believe that they are assaulted, the transgender sex workers answered that it was because their client misunderstood their anatomy as a transgender woman. One participant stated that if the male clients see "female" breasts and "male" genitals, they expect to get a "knife through [the] throat".[12]

Homicide[]

A 2017 analysis published by Alexis Dinno in the American Journal of Public Health attempted to estimate the transgender murder rate using homicide data from the Transgender Day of Remembrance and National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs, along with estimates of the overall transgender population in the United States. The study generated a number of potential estimates of the trans murder rate, ranging from around 7 times lower than the rate for cis people (assuming no undercounting of trans murders, and a trans prevalence of 0.6% of the population) up to 4 times higher (assuming 80% of trans murders are not accounted for, and a trans prevalence of 0.1%), ultimately concluding that the trans murder rate was "likely to be less than that of cisgender individuals". Dinno described this as a surprising result, given that transgender people are more likely to be financially vulnerable and report experiencing high rates of violence. However, Dinno found that young (aged 15 to 34) black and Latina trans women were "almost certainly" killed at a higher rate than cis women.[3]

Emotional violence[]

Emotional violence in this context refers to verbal abuse directed at a person or persons with the intent to harm or humiliate the victim. In a recent study of crimes reported against transgender individuals, the researchers found that in many instances there were reports of verbal abuse directed towards the victims. The examples of verbal abuse reported during the crimes included homophobic and transphobic slurs and language. These attacks were mainly towards their gender and perceived identity. These examples of verbal abuse label the attacks as a hate crime.[1][failed verification]

Violence against transgender women of color[]

Young transgender women of color experience violence and murder at a rate much higher than that of their white transgender counterparts.[1] A study conducted by the Gender Public Advocacy Coalition sought to examine the transgender murder rate from 1995 to 2005. The study focused on victims that were under the age of 30. Of the 51 victims that they analyzed, 91% of them were people of color. In a separate study conducted by Garofalo et al. (2006), the self-report survey revealed that 52% of the 51 transgender women of color had experienced unwanted sexual intercourse. This study also found that MTF transgender youth of color are at risk of homelessness, substance abuse, and contracting HIV.[13]

Violence towards trans women of colour is often perpetrated by a romantic partner or a potential romantic partner. Cisgender men have been found to dehumanize transgender women of color based on stereotypes that they associate with the community, for example that transgender women of color perform sex work or suffer from substance abuse. These stereotypes has been perpetuated by both straight and gay cisgender men that are seeking a romantic relationship with a transgender woman of color. Transgender women of color also report that cisgender men often engage in the hyper-sexualization of the community, leading to trans women feeling objectified.[14]

Cisgender men that enter a romantic relationship with a transgender woman of color often conceal their romantic involvement; this includes refusal to be seen with a transgender woman in public, on social media, or in any way that might suggest a relationship. This has been attributed to the social stigma surrounding these women.[14]

These forms of rejection, concealment, and over sexualization may result in psychological trauma. Some transgender women of color have reported that they have never been in a healthy relationship. This deeply affects their feelings of self worth.[14]

Resources for transgender people experiencing violence[]

There are several resources available for members of the LGBTQ+ community when they are in times of crisis. One leading national organization for the LGBTQ+ youth is The Trevor Project, which assists with crisis intervention and suicide prevention.[15]

Another available resource is the Trans Lifeline, which is an organization that provides a hotline for direct emotional and financial support to transgender individuals.[16]

See also[]

References[]

  1. ^ a b c d Stotzer, Rebecca L. (September 2017). "Data Sources Hinder Our Understanding of Transgender Murders". American Journal of Public Health. 107 (9): 1362–1363. doi:10.2105/ajph.2017.303973. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 5551619. PMID 28787204.
  2. ^ a b "Transgender people over four times more likely than cisgender people to be victims of violent crime". Williams Institute. 23 March 2021. Retrieved 2021-09-28.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  3. ^ a b Dinno, Alexis (2017). "Homicide Rates of Transgender Individuals in the United States: 2010–2014". American Journal of Public Health. 107 (9): 1441–1447. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2017.303878. PMC 5551594. PMID 28727530.
  4. ^ transrespect.org/en/map/trans-murder-monitoring/?submap=tmm_relative_numbers Transrespect versus Transphobia, retrieved 2021-11-03
  5. ^ Basile, Kathleen C.; Saltzman, Linda E. (2002). "Sexual Violence Surveillance: Uniform Definitions and Recommended Data Elements". PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi:10.1037/e721362007-001. Retrieved 2020-11-13.
  6. ^ James, S. E., Herman, J. L., Rankin, S., Keisling, M., Mottet, L., & Anafi, M. (2016). The Report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey. Washington, DC: National Center for Transgender Equality.
  7. ^ a b Xavier, Jessica; Honnold, Julie A.; Bradford, Judith (2007). "The Health, Health Related Needs, and Lifecourse Experiences of Transgender Virginians". PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi:10.1037/e544442014-001. Retrieved 2020-11-13.
  8. ^ Cook-Daniels, Loree; munson, michael (5 May 2010). "Sexual Violence, Elder Abuse, and Sexuality of Transgender Adults, Age 50+: Results of Three Surveys". Journal of GLBT Family Studies. 6 (2): 142–177. doi:10.1080/15504281003705238. ISSN 1550-428X. S2CID 57665777.
  9. ^ Cook-Daniels, Loree (2008). "Transgender Aging Special Topics: Sexuality, Sexual Violence, and Elder Abuse". PsycEXTRA Dataset. doi:10.1037/e497232008-001. Retrieved 2020-11-13.
  10. ^ a b Stotzer, Rebecca L. (May 2009). "Violence against transgender people: A review of United States data". Aggression and Violent Behavior. 14 (3): 170–179. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2009.01.006. ISSN 1359-1789.
  11. ^ Valera, Roberto J.; Sawyer, Robin G.; Schiraldi, Glenn R. (2001-01-01). "Perceived Health Needs of Inner-City Street Prostitutes: A Preliminary Study". American Journal of Health Behavior. 25 (1): 50–59. doi:10.5993/ajhb.25.1.6. ISSN 1087-3244. PMID 11289729.
  12. ^ Nemoto, T.; Operario, D.; Keatley, J.; Villegas, D. (August 2004). "Social context of HIV risk behaviours among male-to-female transgenders of colour". AIDS Care. 16 (6): 724–735. doi:10.1080/09540120413331269567. ISSN 0954-0121. PMID 15370060. S2CID 35253652.
  13. ^ Garofalo, Robert; Deleon, Joanne; Osmer, Elizabeth; Doll, Mary; Harper, Gary W. (March 2006). "Overlooked, misunderstood and at-risk: Exploring the lives and HIV risk of ethnic minority male-to-female transgender youth". Journal of Adolescent Health. 38 (3): 230–236. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.03.023. ISSN 1054-139X. PMID 16488820.
  14. ^ a b c Gamarel, Kristi E.; Jadwin-Cakmak, Laura; King, Wesley M.; Lacombe-Duncan, Ashley; Trammell, Racquelle; Reyes, Lilianna A.; Burks, Cierra; Rivera, Bré; Arnold, Emily; Harper, Gary W. (2020-11-30). "Stigma Experienced by Transgender Women of Color in Their Dating and Romantic Relationships: Implications for Gender-based Violence Prevention Programs". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. doi:10.1177/0886260520976186. PMC 8164638. PMID 33256510. S2CID 227246930.
  15. ^ Tomczyk, Patrick (2021-10-04). "Resourcefully queer: a review of The Educator's Guide to LGBT + Inclusion: A Practical Resource for K-12 Teachers, Administrators, and School Support Staff". Journal of LGBT Youth: 1–4. doi:10.1080/19361653.2021.1985683. ISSN 1936-1653.
  16. ^ Carter, Sarah P.; Cowan, Tovah; Snow, Annie; Cerel, Julie; Tucker, Raymond (1 February 2020). "Health Insurance and Mental Health Care Utilization Among Adults Who Identify as Transgender and Gender Diverse". Psychiatric Services. 71 (2): 151–157. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201900289. ISSN 1075-2730. PMID 31658897. S2CID 204954319.
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