730s

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Millennium: 1st millennium
Centuries:
Decades:
Years:
  • 730
  • 731
  • 732
  • 733
  • 734
  • 735
  • 736
  • 737
  • 738
  • 739
Categories:
  • Births
  • Deaths
  • Establishments
  • Disestablishments

The 730s decade ran from January 1, 730, to December 31, 739.

Events

730

This section is transcluded from AD 730. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • King Liutprand contracts an alliance with Eutychius, exarch of Ravenna, and agrees to support him in his attack on Rome, while subjugating the independent southern Lombard duchies of Benevento and Spoleto.
  • Tiberius Petasius proclaims himself emperor in Tuscia. Eutychius defeats him with the support of Pope Gregory II, and Tiberius is killed in Monterano, with his head sent to the Byzantine emperor Leo III as a gift.[1]
  • Charles Martel defeats the last independent dukedom of Alamannia, and incorporates it into the Frankish Empire. He also launches raids on the Saxons beyond the Rhine.
Arabian Empire[]
China[]
  • Emperor Xuan Zong has four palace walls in the northeast sector of the capital city Chang'an dismantled and reassembled to construct a new Daoist abbey, the grounds of which are formally a large garden for the Bureau of Agriculture.

By topic[]

  • In this decade Hops are first cultivated in Germany, in the Hallertau region.[3]
Religion[]
  • Leo III of the Byzantine Empire orders the destruction of all icons, beginning the First Iconoclastic Period. Many monks flee to Greece and Italy (taking smaller icons with them, hidden in their clothing); others flee to the caves of the Cappadocian desert.

731

This section is transcluded from AD 731. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • Umayyad conquest of Gaul: Munuza, Moorish governor of Cerdagne (eastern Pyrenees), rebels against Umayyad authority. He is defeated and executed by Muslim forces under Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi at Urgell (Catalonia). Muslim garrisons in Septimania raid the cities Millau and Arles.[4]
  • Ragenfrid, ex-mayor of the palace of Neustria, meets Duke Eudes of Aquitaine, to accept his rule and independence from the Frankish Kingdom. Fearing an alliance against him, Charles Martel exiles Ragenfrid's supporter Wandon of Fontenelle, and imprisons bishop Aimar of Auxerre.[5]
  • Charles Martel leads two raids across the Loire River into the Berry region. The Franks seize and plunder Bourges (central France), but the city is immediately recaptured by Eudes of Aquitaine.
Britain[]
  • Autumn – King Ceolwulf of Northumbria is deposed by opponents, and forced to enter a monastery. His supporters subsequently restore him to the throne (or 732).
  • King Æthelbald of Mercia overruns a large portion of Somerset, and wrests the county from Wessex control (approximate date).
Asia[]
  • Battle of the Defile: An Umayyad relief army (28,000 men) is sent to Samarkand (modern Uzbekistan), which is besieged by the Turgesh.[6] The Muslims are ambushed near the Zarafshan Range, at the Tashtakaracha Pass.[7][8] The battle results in a Pyrrhic victory, with heavy casualties for the Umayyad army, halting Muslim expansion in Central Asia for almost two decades.

By topic[]

Literature[]
  • Bede, Anglo-Saxon monk and historian, completes his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum at the monastery of Saint Peter at Monkwearmouth.
Religion[]
  • February 11 – Pope Gregory II dies at Rome after a 16-year reign, in which he has fought Iconoclasm. He is succeeded by the Syrian-born cleric Gregory III, as the 90th pope of the Catholic Church.[9]
  • A Moorish raiding party under Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi invades deep into Burgundy, and plunders the monastery of Luxeuil Abbey, located in the Haute-Saône, massacring most of the community.
  • November 1 – Synod of Rome: Gregory III summons a council at the shrine of Saint Peter. All western bishops participate, including the Roman nobility. Gregory condemns Iconoclasm as a heresy.[10]

732

This section is transcluded from AD 732. ( | )

By place[]

Byzantine Empire[]
  • Byzantine Emperor Leo III marries his 15 year old son Constantine to Tzitzak (later baptised as Irene), the daughter of the Khazar Khagan Bihar, as a sign of diplomatic unity between the Byzantine Empire and the Khazar Khaganate.
Europe[]
  • Battle of the River Garonne: A Umayyad Muslim army (40,000 men) under Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, governor of Al-Andalus, crosses the Pyrenees through the Roncesvalles Pass and raids widely, ravaging the cities of Oloron, Lescar and Bayonne, and burning the abbey of Saint-Sever. Umayyad forces destroy the monastery of Saint-Émilion, and defeat the 'Count of Libourne'. Abdul Rahman sacks and captures Bordeaux, and nearly wipes out the army of Duke Eudes of Aquitaine, at the Garonne River.[11]
  • Summer – Eudes of Aquitaine heads for the Frankish city of Reims, to warn Charles Martel, Merovingian mayor of the palace, of the Umayyad invasion in Gaul, and ask for his support against the invaders. The two leaders meet near Paris; Charles issues a 'general ban' to raise an army, which includes large numbers of Austrasians, Neustrians, and Burgundians. Meanwhile, Arabians ravage the cities of Périgueux, Saintes and Angoulême, then sack the basilica of Saint-Hilaire outside Poitiers.[12]
  • September – Charles Martel leads his Frankish army (30,000 men) to Orléans and crosses the Loire River, probably accompanied by Eudes of Aquitaine, with his remaining troops. He makes camp near Tours, probably at Ballan-Miré south-west of the fortress city, in order to protect the abbey of Saint Martin. Charles defeats or forces back Umayyad scouts or an advance guard, between the rivers Indre and Creuse. Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi pulls back to establish a position at the Vienne River.[13]
  • October – The Frankish army crosses the Vienne River and establishes a camp at or around the partially abandoned Roman mansion or agricultural settlement, now known as 'Vieux-Poitiers' (near Châtellerault), perhaps using the Roman theatre with its substantial towers as a fortification. Charles Martel forms a defensive position across the Roman road, and fends off Muslim skirmishes during the 'seven days' stand-off, probably involving scouts, and perhaps raiders from both armies.[14]
  • October 10 – Battle of Tours: The Frankish and Burgundian forces under Charles Martel defeat a large army of Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, near Poitiers, halting the Islamic advance into Western Europe; Rahman Al Ghafiqi is killed during the battle. Charles extends his authority in the south of France, which gives him the nickname Martellus ("The Hammer"). The outcome of the victory is a turning point, and establishes a balance of power between Western Europe and the Byzantine Empire.[15]
  • Muslim forces withdraw southwards to Septimania; a separate part probably pulls back along the road it originally came through, across the Pyrenees Mountains. Eudes of Aquitaine pursues the main Muslim army via La Marche, before returning to Bordeaux; Charles Martel withdraws to Frankish territory through Orléans and Auxerre, demoting those bishops whom he thought unreliable. Abd al-Malik ibn Katan al-Fihri becomes the new governor (wali) of Al-Andalus; a separate Muslim force raids the Rhône region.[12]
Britain[]
  • Autumn – King Ceolwulf of Northumbria is deposed by opponents, and forced to enter a monastery. His supporters subsequently restore him to the throne (or 731).

By topic[]

Astronomy[]
Religion[]
  • Pope Gregory III confers on Boniface, Anglo-Saxon missionary, the pallium as archbishop, with jurisdiction over Bavaria (modern Germany). He orders him to forbid the consumption of horseflesh by his Christian converts.[16]
  • Ecgbert is appointed bishop of York, by his cousin Ceolwulf of Northumbria.[17] He founds a library, and makes the city a renowned centre of learning (approximate date).

733

This section is transcluded from AD 733. ( | )

By place[]

Byzantine Empire[]
  • Emperor Leo III confiscates the papal territories in Sicily and Calabria (Southern Italy), from which Pope Gregory III derives most of his income tax. He transfers ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the former Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum to Anastasius, patriarch of Constantinople. Gregory begins his support of a revolt in Italy against iconoclasm. By now the break between the papacy and the Byzantine Empire is almost complete.[18]
  • Arab-Byzantine Wars: Arab forces under Mu’awiya ibn Hisham penetrate deep into Anatolia and conquer the cities of Antalya, Doralyum and Afyonkarahisar. These conquests differ from previous ones, as Arab military settling occurs in them, making them a base to raid Byzantium.
Europe[]
  • Duke Eudes of Aquitaine, aged almost 80, abdicates and retires to a monastery. His lands are divided between his sons Hunald I and Hatton, who continue the conflict with Charles Martel, mayor of the palace of Neustria and Austrasia. In battles at Benest in Charente and La Rochefoucauld (near Angoulême), Charles probably defeats the Aquitainians. He also campaigns against the Burgundians.[19]
  • Umayyad conquest of Hispania: Muslim forces under Abd al-Malik ibn Katan al-Fihri, governor (wali) of Al-Andalus, cross the Pyrenees and ravage both sides of the mountains. He establishes colonies along the Ebro Valley, and within Basque territory. The Moorish main military efforts are in Catalonia, Aragon, Navarre and Septimania (Southern France), strengthening the towns already in their hands.[20]
  • Duke Audelais of Benevento and his minor son Gisulf are deposed by King Liutprand of the Lombards. He is succeeded by Gregory, who becomes ruler of Benevento.

734

This section is transcluded from AD 734. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • Battle of the Boarn: The Franks under Charles Martel, mayor of the palace of Neustria and Austrasia, defeat the Frisians near the mouth of the River Boarn (now the Dutch province of Friesland). During the battle, the Frisian army is beaten and King Poppo is killed.[21] The Franks gain control of the Frisian lands west of the Lauwers (Netherlands), and begin plundering the pagan sanctuaries. The Frisians become Frankish vassals, apart from the tribes living in East Frisia in present day Germany.
  • Umayyad conquest of Gaul: Muslim forces under Abd al-Malik ibn Katan al-Fihri, governor (wali) of Al-Andalus (modern Spain), enter Provence and raid the Rhône Valley. The cities of Avignon, Arles, and probably Marseille are handed over by Count Maurontus, who is in rebellion against Charles Martel.[22]
  • 8 September: Frithubeorht is consecrated Bishop of Hexham.
Mesoamerica[]
Asia[]
  • On March 23, 734 AD, a large earthquake happened in Qinzhou of Tang Dynasty, now the vicinity of Tianshui City, causing serious seismic disasters as "the earth ruptured and closed again, nearly all the houses damaged, about 4000 people dead, hills changed into valleys, and towns covered by landslip, and so on".[23]

735

This section is transcluded from AD 735. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • Charles Martel, Merovingian mayor of the palace, invades Burgundy. Duke Hunald I of Aquitaine refuses to recognise the authority of the Franks, whereupon Charles marches south of the River Loire, seizing the cities of Bordeaux and Blaye. Within 4 years he will have subdued all the Burgundian chieftains, while continuing to fight off Moorish advances into Gaul.[24]
  • King Liutprand of the Lombards raises his nephew Hildeprand to co-kingship, after a serious illness (approximate date).
  • Siege of al-Sakhra: Moors under Uqba ibn al-Hajjaj (governor of Al-Andalus) besiege Pelagius, king of Asturias, in the uppermost Northern mountain ranges in Iberia. The battle ends inconclusively, with Pelagius surviving, but 270 out of his 300 followers are killed, at least according to a Muslim chronicle from the 11th century.[1]
Asia[]
  • During the Tang Dynasty in China, by this year there is 149,685,400 kg (165,000 short tons) of grain shipped annually along the Grand Canal.
  • A major smallpox epidemic starts in Japan, which reduces the population by 30%.
Armenia[]

By topic[]

Literature[]
Religion[]

736

This section is transcluded from AD 736. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • Charles Martel, Merovingian mayor of the palace, forms local alliances with the Burgundians, and imposes Frankish domination on Provence. He defeats Muslim forces at Sernhac and Beaucaire in Septimania (Southern France).[28]
  • Battle of Nîmes: The Franks under Charles Martel fail to capture Narbonne but devastate most of the other settlements, including Nîmes, Agde, Béziers and Maguelonne, which Martel views as potential strongholds of the Umayyads.[29]
Britain[]
  • King Æthelbald of Mercia is described in the Ismere Diploma as ruler (bretwalda) of the Mercians, and all the provinces in southern England. He is also named "Rex Britanniae" (king of Britain).[30][31]
  • King Óengus I of the Picts invades the neighbouring kingdom of Dál Riata, which is subjugated. He takes the fortress of Dunadd,[32] and establishes his rule in Scotland for over two decades.
Asia[]
Mesoamerica[]

737

This section is transcluded from AD 737. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • Battle of Avignon: Frankish forces under Charles Martel, Merovingian Mayor of the Palace, retake Avignon from the Muslim forces, and destroy the Umayyad stronghold. Charles sends his brother Childebrand I, duke of Burgundy, to besiege the city. After his arrival, Charles leads the Frankish troops by using rope ladders and battering rams to attack the fortified walls, which are burned to the ground following its capture.[33][34]
  • Battle of Narbonne: Frankish forces under Charles Martel besiege Narbonne, occupied by a Umayyad garrison, but are unable to retake the fortress city. A Lombard army under King Liutprand crosses the Alps, to aid Charles in expelling the Muslims from Septimania. Meanwhile Maurontus, duke or count of Provence, raises a revolt from his unconquered city of Marseille, and threatens the rear of the Franks.[35]
  • Battle of the River Berre: Frankish forces sent by Charles Martel intercept a large Muslim army sent from Al-Andalus, (modern Spain) sent by Uqba ibn al-Hajjaj to relieve the siege of Narbonne. Both sides suffer heavy losses at the battlefield near the mouth of the River Berre (a short distance south of Narbonne). Some of the Muslims rush back to their ships, and some penetrate through the Frankish forces and make it to the city, effectively saving it from the Franks.[36]
  • Following the death of Theuderic IV, king of the Franks, the throne is left vacant for seven years. Charles Martel has his son Childeric III exiled to a monastery, and becomes sole ruler of the Frankish Kingdom.
  • King Pelagius of Asturias dies, and is succeeded by his son Favila.[37] He founds the Church of Santa Cruz, in his capital Cangas de Onís (northwest of Spain).
  • Orso Ipato is murdered at the instigation of Eutychius, exarch of Ravenna. He is succeeded by Domenico Leoni, who is elected magister militum of Venice.
  • King Ongendus of the Danes reinforces the Danevirke fortifications in Schleswig-Holstein. He orders a palisade rampart built on the frontier of Saxony.
Britain[]
  • King Ceolwulf of Northumbria abdicates in favour of his cousin, Eadberht, and becomes a monk at Lindisfarne Priory.
Africa[]
  • Egypt: Christians invade from the south, with the aim of protecting the patriarch of Alexandria (approximate date).
Asia[]
  • Second Arab–Khazar War: The Khazars led by Hazer Tarkhan are defeated by a Muslim force, sent by near the Volga River, which destroyed what remained of the Khazar forces. The Umayyad Caliphate now has full control of the Caucasus after completely destroying the Khazar Empire. After its destruction the Arab-Khazar wars are stopped, Muslim sources indicate the Khazar Khan paid tribute to Marwan and converted to Islam.
  • September 30 – Battle of the Baggage: The Turgesh drive back an Umayyad invasion of Khuttal, pursue them south of the River Oxus (northern Afghanistan), and capture their baggage train. In the winter, the Turgesh and their Transoxianan allies launch a major counter-invasion but are halted and their army is destroyed. Khuttal is then conquered by the Arabs.
  • Emperor Xuan Zong discards the policy of conscripting men into the Chinese army to be replaced every three years, replacing them with long-service soldiers who are more battle-hardened and efficient (approximate date).

By topic[]

Catastrophe[]
  • A major Japanese smallpox epidemic that started in 735 finally runs its course, but only after causing an estimated 25% to 35% mortality among the adult population in the country.[38]

738

This section is transcluded from AD 738. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • Charles Martel, Merovingian mayor of the palace, begins a campaign against the Saxons (in modern-day Westphalia) on the northeast frontier. They are subdued and must pay him tribute.[39]
  • Moors under Uqba ibn Al-Hajjaj cross the Pyrenees into France. Uqba fortifies Narbonne and reconquers Avignon, Arles, Nimes. He then advances into Provance, and penetrates as far as Piedmont; he then heads North, and conquers Dauphiné, destroying the city of Saint-Paul, taking Valence, Vienne and Lyón, which he uses as a base to attack Bourgogne.
  • Kormesiy, ruler (khagan) of the Bulgarian Empire, is deposed by the nobility. He is replaced on the throne by his son Sevar, who is a descendant of the royal Dulo clan.
  • Felice Cornicola is appointed hypatos (Byzantine consul) and magister militum of Venice.
Britain[]
Mesoamerica[]

By topic[]

Religion[]
  • Boniface visits Rome, and is made papal legate of the Frankish Kingdom. He establishes many bishoprics in Bavaria.

739

This section is transcluded from AD 739. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • The Lombards under King Liutprand sack the Exarchate of Ravenna, and threaten Rome. Pope Gregory III asks Charles Martel, Merovingian mayor of the palace, to help fight the Lombards (he also requests assistance in fighting the Byzantines and the Arabs). Liutprand signs a peace accord, and pulls back his forces to Pavia.[40] After the pope's appeal to the Franks, a relationship begins that will continue as the Frankish Kingdom gains power.
  • Umayyad conquest of Gaul: Charles Martel attacks Duke Maurontus of Provence and his Muslim allies. His brother Childebrand captures Marseille, one of the largest cities still in Umayyad hands. Maurontus is forced to go into hiding in the Alps.[41]
  • King Favila of Asturias dies after a 2-year reign (probably killed by a bear). He is succeeded by his brother-in-law Alfonso I, husband of his sister Ermesinda.
  • Duke Pemmo of Friuli is deposed by Liutprand, and succeeded by his son Ratchis. He flees with his followers, but Ratchis secures his father's pardon.
  • Theodatus Ursus is appointed hypatos (Byzantine consul) and magister militum of Venice.
Africa[]
  • The Great Berber Revolt: The Berbers break out in revolt against the Umayyad rulers at Maghreb, in response to the oppressive, (and, by Islamic law, illegal) tax-collection and slave-tribute. The rebellion is led by the chieftain (alleged water-carrier) Maysara al-Matghari. He successfully seizes Tangier, and captures rapidly much of western Morocco. The Berber rebellion which erupts not only undermines caliphal rule and fragments the wilayat or province of Ifriqiya (North Africa), but paves the way for the emergence of autonomous local Arab dynasties.[42]

By topic[]

Religion[]
  • Boniface, Anglo-Saxon missionary who has been Christianizing Bavaria, founds the bishoprics of Salzburg, Regensburg, Freising, and Passau.
  • Willibrord, the first bishop of Utrecht in the Netherlands, and Northumbrian missionary, dies at Echternach (modern Luxembourg).

Significant people[]

Births[]

Transcluding articles: 730, 731, 732, 733, 734, 735, 736, AD 737, 738, and 739

730

731

732

733

734

735

  • Abu Yusuf, Muslim jurist and chief adviser (or 738)
  • Alcuin, Anglo-Saxon missionary (approximate date)
  • Dantidurga, founder of the Rashtrakuta Empire (d. 756)
  • Du You, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (d. 812)
  • Kardam, ruler (khan) of the Bulgarian Empire
  • Plato of Sakkoudion, Byzantine abbot (approximate date)

736

737

  • Fujiwara no Tanetsugu, Japanese nobleman (d. 785)
  • Hisham ibn al-Kalbi, Muslim historian (d. 819)
  • Huaisu, Chinese Buddhist monk (d. 799)
  • Kanmu, emperor of Japan (d. 806)

738

  • Abu Yusuf, Arab jurist and chief adviser (approximate date)
  • Chengguan, Chinese Buddhist monk (d. 839)

739

Deaths[]

Transcluding articles: 730, 731, 732, 733, 734, 735, 736, AD 737, 738, and 739

730

731

732

  • Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, governor of Al-Andalus
  • Nechtan mac Der-Ilei, king of the Picts[43]
  • Romuald II, duke of Benevento (Italy)
  • Rupert of Bingen, patron saint (b. 712)
  • Sima Zhen, Chinese historian (b. 679)

733

734

735

736

737

738

739

  • Aldwulf, Anglo-Saxon bishop
  • Engelmund, Anglo-Saxon missionary
  • Favila, king of Asturias (Spain)
  • Nothhelm, Anglo-Saxon bishop
  • Pemmo, duke of Friuli (Italy)
  • Willibrord, Anglo-Saxon bishop

References[]

  1. ^ "History of the Byzantine Empire, SECTION II REIGN OF LEO III (THE ISAURIAN) A.D. 717-741, George Finlay, 1906". Archived from the original on July 15, 2018. Retrieved April 5, 2020.
  2. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 415
  3. ^ "Three Millennia of German Brewing". Archived from the original on 30 November 2016.
  4. ^ David Nicolle (2008). Poitiers AD 732, Charles Martel turns the Islamic tide (p. 41). ISBN 978-184603-230-1
  5. ^ David Nicolle (2008). Poitiers AD 732, Charles Martel turns the Islamic tide (p. 19). ISBN 978-184603-230-1
  6. ^ Blankinship (1994), pp. 156, 157
  7. ^ Kennedy (2001), p. 29
  8. ^ Kennedy (2007), p. 285
  9. ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Pope St. Gregory III" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  10. ^ Treadgold, p. 354
  11. ^ David Nicolle (2008). Poitiers AD 732, Charles Martel turns the Islamic tide (p. 45). ISBN 978-184603-230-1
  12. ^ a b David Nicolle (2008). Poitiers AD 732, Charles Martel turns the Islamic tide (p. 19). ISBN 978-184603-230-1
  13. ^ David Nicolle (2008). Poitiers AD 732, Charles Martel turns the Islamic tide (p. 55). ISBN 978-184603-230-1
  14. ^ David Nicolle (2008). Poitiers AD 732, Charles Martel turns the Islamic tide (p. 66). ISBN 978-184603-230-1
  15. ^ Durant, Will, The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster (1950). OCLC 225699907. Page, 461. Originally published 1939. ISBN 978-0-671-41800-7
  16. ^ Schwabe, Calvin W. (1979). Unmentionable Cuisine, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press (p. 157). ISBN 0813908116
  17. ^ Mayr-Harting, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
  18. ^ Duffy, p. 64; Mann, p. 207
  19. ^ David Nicolle (2008). Poitiers AD 732, Charles Martel turns the Islamic tide (p. 19). ISBN 978-184603-230-1
  20. ^ David Nicolle (2008). Poitiers AD 732, Charles Martel turns the Islamic tide (p. 83). ISBN 978-184603-230-1
  21. ^ "Geschiedenis van het volk der Friezen". Boudicca.de. Archived from the original on June 8, 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-22.
  22. ^ David Nicolle (2008). Poitiers AD 732, Charles Martel turns the Islamic people (p. 19). ISBN 978-184603-230-1
  23. ^ Lei, Z.-S. (March 2007). "Textual research on the Tianshui M 7 earthquake in 734 AD and analysis of its causative structure". ResearchGate. Retrieved June 9, 2021.
  24. ^ Pierre Riche, The Carolingians: A family who forged Europe, Transl. Michael Idomir Allen, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), p. 44.
  25. ^ Guidoboni, Traina, 1995, p. 119-120
  26. ^ Golden, Peter B. (2010). Turks and Khazars: origins, institutions, and interactions in pre-Mongol Eurasia. Farnham, England: Ashgate/Variorum. ISBN 978-1-4094-0003-5.
  27. ^ Mayr-Harting, "Ecgberht (d. 766)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
  28. ^ David Nicolle (2008). Poitiers AD 732, Charles Martel turns the Islamic tide (p. 19). ISBN 978-184603-230-1
  29. ^ Riche, Pierre (1993). The Carolingians: A Family Who Forged Europe. University of Pennsylvania Press, p. 45. ISBN 0-8122-1342-4
  30. ^ "Anglo-Saxons.net: S 89". Retrieved 27 April 2007.
  31. ^ Fletcher, Who's Who, pp. 98–100
  32. ^ Lynch, Michael (ed.). The Oxford companion to Scottish history. Oxford University Press. p. 180. ISBN 9780199693054.
  33. ^ Halsall, Guy (2003). Warfare and Society in the Barbarian West 450-900. London: Routledge, p. 226. ISBN 0-415-23939-7.
  34. ^ Mastnak, Tomaz (2002). Crusading Peace: Christendom, the Muslim World, and Western Political Order. University of California Press, p. 101. ISBN 0-520-22635-6.
  35. ^ Lewis, Archibald R. (1965). The Development of Southern French and Catalan Society, 718–1050. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 23. Retrieved June 15, 2012.
  36. ^ Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Harlow: Longman. p. 97. ISBN 0-582-06476-7.
  37. ^ Collins, Roger (1989). The Arab Conquest of Spain, 710-797. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 150. ISBN 0-631-15923-1.
  38. ^ Farris, William Wayne (1985). Population, Disease, and Land in Early Japan, 645-900. Harvard University Asia Center. pp. 65–66. ISBN 9780674690059.
  39. ^ David Nicolle (2008). Poitiers AD 732, Charles Martel turns the Islamic tide (p. 19). ISBN 978-184603-230-1.
  40. ^ Mann, p. 220
  41. ^ David Nicolle (2008). Poitiers AD 732, Charles Martel turns the Islamic tide (p. 19). ISBN 978-184603-230-1
  42. ^ David Nicolle (2008). Poitiers AD 732, Charles Martel turns the Islamic tide (p. 87). ISBN 978-184603-230-1
  43. ^ Lynch, Michael (ed.). The Oxford companion to Scottish history. Oxford University Press. p. 447. ISBN 9780199693054.
  44. ^ Grapard, Allan G. (2016). Mountain Mandalas: Shugendo in Kyushu. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-4742-4901-0.
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