Agriculture in Sri Lanka

Agriculture land in Nuwara Eliya district

The primary form of agriculture in Sri Lanka is rice production. Rice is cultivated during Maha and Yala seasons.^[1] Tea is cultivated in the central highlands and is a major source of foreign exchange. Vegetables, fruits and oilseed crops are also cultivated in the country. There are two Agriculture Parks abbreviated as A. Parks established by the Department of Agriculture. Out of the total population in Sri Lanka, 27.1% engages in agricultural activities.^[2] Agriculture accounted for 7.4% of the GDP (gross domestic product) in 2020.^[3]

History[]

Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) has been an agricultural country since time immemorial. The chief occupation of the then Sri Lankas, was agriculture, and land use in ancient Sri Lanka had been mainly agricultural. People grew their own food and there was hardly any foreign agriculture food trade. The earliest agricultural settlements were in the river valleys in the northern and south-eastern plains and the main crop cultivation was paddy under rain-fed conditions. A main feature of the civilization in ancient Sri Lanka was the development of an irrigation technology. Thousands of small irrigation tanks of varying sizes and shapes, particularly in the Dry Zone provided water for paddy cultivation. Paddy was cultivated only in one season and during the dry season the lands were left fallow. Uplands were cultivated under rainfed conditions with subsidiary food crops under a shifting cultivation system. Until the 19th century subsistence agriculture continued to be the mainstay of the country.^[4]

The system of subsistence agriculture continued until the advent of foreigners. Coffee (Coffea arabica) was introduced in 1722 by the Dutch, (during the Dutch Ceylon) and the British (during the British Ceylon), who arrived in the country in 1796, promoted the cultivation of this crop. With the rapid increase in the consumption of coffee in England, the demand for coffee increased considerably and the coffee cultivation also expanded. The fall of coffee resulted in the development of other planation crops. Coffee lands in the central highlands were replaced by tea (Camellia sinensis)and was promoted from 1860s onwards. While tea replaced coffee in the upcountry areas, rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) was planted in the low country. Rubber was introduced in 1876 but its cultivation began in the 1890s and gradually expanded. Coconut (Cocos nucifera) was initially cultivated in home gardens. The local planters concentrated more on coconut and by 1900 coconut covered around 40% of the cultivated area. Most of the coconuts were cultivated in the Southern and North Western province of the country. By the end of the 19th century, with the opening of lands for planation crops, this sector became the dominant sector of the economy. However, after Sri Lanka became an independent country in 1948, there was more emphasis on cultivation of food crops. The first Prime Minister of Ceylon late Mr. D.S. Senanayake, followed by other leaders promoted cultivation of paddy and other food crops. Large extents of land were cleared and irrigation schemes such as Galoya were initiated to increase food production. Colonization schemes were established to settle people from densely population areas. At present the plantation sector and the cultivation of domestic crops constitute the agricultural sector of Sri Lanka. Around 80% of the people live in rural areas and their main income is derived from crops.^[4]

Staples[]

Oilseed crops[]

Oilseed crops such as groundnut, sesame, sunflower and mustard are also cultivated in Sri Lanka. Groundnut is grown mainly in Moneragala, Hambantota, Kurunegala, Anuradhapura, Badulla, Ratnapura and Puttalam districts. Though groundnut is an oil crop, it has a demand as a snack and confectionery in Sri Lanka.^[5]

Rice cultivation[]

Aerial view of the Badulla showing the land use patterns.

The beginning of paddy cultivation in Sri Lanka, back to the history between 3000 years and 3rd century B.C. Mostly paddy field-based rivers or water resources. The governing Royal minds of Sri Lanka saw the enriching importance of rice cultivation that provoked them to build tanks of extraordinary size and numbers to irrigate the mass-scale rice production. At present much of the human and animal labour is replaced with technology, adding a greater deal of efficiency towards the production process.^[6]

Present-day rice production is one of the main crops and staple foods in Sri Lanka. Rice is the staple food of 21 million Sri Lankans and is the livelihood of more than 2 million farmers. More than 30 percent of the total labour force is directly or indirectly involved in the rice sector. The annual per capita consumption of rice was around 92 kg in 1998. In 1990s total production was near 3 million metric tonnes of rough rice (paddy), which is about 60 percent of the national requirement (2013). Sri Lanka needs about 3–4 million metric tonnes annually. Today 30–40% of rice is imported from India. Because Sri Lankan farmers left farming. It cultivates mostly North Central and East provinces of Sri Lanka. The seasons are called Maha season and Yala season. Maha Season starts by September and ends by March. Yala season starts by May and ends by August. Yala season is the main and most important paddy season. ^[7]

Cash crops[]

Cocoa[]

This section is an excerpt from Cocoa production in Sri Lanka.[]

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Cocoa (Theobroma cacao) production contributes to the national economy of Sri Lanka. It is grown in fairly dense shade and generally cultivated under coconut and rubber. Although cocoa production remains a source of revenue, it is no longer a main economic sector. The great part of cocoa cultivation occurs in the Matale, Kandy, Badulla, Kurunegala, Kegalle and Monaragala districts. The first cocoa plants were introduced to the country in 1819.^[8] Recent years cocoa production has increased by nearly $22.6 million (2015).^[9]

In 2019, the country ranked 30th of largest cocoa producers in the world. cocoa production was at 1,499 tons from an area of 2,000 hectares (4,942 acres), at a yield rate of 7,499 hectograms per hectare.^[10] In other lands shade crop such as Dadap are used. Out of two cocoa varieties, viz. Forastero and Criollo, the former is more widely grown although the quality of Criollo is better. The first cocoa plants introduce to Ceylon in early 1890. British established the first cocoa plantation in Nalanda, Matale district. Cocoa was cultivation in about 30,000 acres in 1960. ^[11] Cocoa is mostly cultivated in the Central, Uva, North Central and Sabaragamuwa Provinces. Around the 300 plants per acre could be planted at a spacing of 10'x 14'. Cocoa can be picked from the fourth year. The main crop is obtained from October to January, with a smaller crop in May to July. Yields vary from 100–200 kg (220–440 lb) per ha under the heavy shade.^[12] With minimum shade, the yield could go up to soo^{[clarification needed]} kg/ha. A number of diseases, viz. stem canker, pod-rot and swollen shoot tend to decrease yields. The helopeltis bug is the most serious pest and it attacks the pods causing a considerable yield loss.^[13]

Coconut[]

This section is an excerpt from Coconut production in Sri Lanka.[]

Sri Lankan coconut tree in Mirissa beach.

Coconut production contributes to the national economy of Sri Lanka. The scientific name of the coconut is Cocos nucifera. Sri Lanka there are three varieties, tall variety, dwarf variety and King coconut variety.^[14] According to figures published in December 2018 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, it is the world's forth largest producer of coconuts, producing 2,623,000 tonnes in 2018.^[15]

Coffee[]

This section is an excerpt from Coffee production in Sri Lanka.[]

Plate from Ceylon, Physical, Historical and Topographical, titled "The Coffee Regions. Badulla"

Coffee production in Sri Lanka peaked in 1870, with over 111,400 hectares (275,000 acres) being cultivated. The Dutch had experimented with coffee cultivation in the 18th century, but it was not successful until the British began large scale commercial production following the Colebrooke–Cameron Commission reforms of 1833. By 1860, the country was amongst the major coffee-producing nations in the world. Although coffee production remains a source of revenue, it is no longer a main economic sector. In 2014, the country ranked 43rd of largest coffee producers in the world.

Rubber[]

This section is an excerpt from Rubber production in Sri Lanka.[]

Rubber Plantation in Southern Province

A woman in Sri Lanka harvesting rubber, c. 1920

Rubber production in Sri Lanka commenced in 1876, with the planting of 1,919 rubber seedlings at the Henarathgoda Botanical Gardens in Gampaha.^[16] The total extent under rubber in 1890 was around 150 ha and in the early 1900s it increased to around 10,000 ha. By 1982 the total extent under rubber was around 180,000 ha and the total annual production was 125 million kilogram. However, the total extent under rubber declined subsequently and at present it is around 120,000 ha. Rubber contributes about 0.6% of the total GDP.^[17] According to figures published in 2018 by the Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka, producing 82.6 million kg in 2018.^[18]

Spices[]

In 2015 alone, Sri Lanka's spice exports amounted to US$377 million, up from US$264 million the previous year.

Sri Lanka's most famous export, cinnamon is the island's premier spice export. Industry insiders classify the spice into two forms, Ceylon cinnamon (Cinnamomum Zeylanicum), and Cassia Cinnamon. Ceylon cinnamon is the costlier variety and is considered to be a much more upmarket product by those in the West. Sri Lanka exported US$128 million worth of cinnamon in 2014, which accounted for 28% of global cinnamon exports for that year.^[19]

Black pepper 2nd largest export spice in Sri Lanka. Most black pepper export to India. But India and Vietnam re-export to Europe Sri Lankan pepper under the Indian/Vietnam label.^[20]

Tea[]

This section is an excerpt from Tea production in Sri Lanka.[]

Tea plantation (Dambatenne estates) at about 1800 m above sea level in Haputale, Hill Country

Sri Lanka (formerly called Ceylon) has a climate and varied elevation that allows for the production of both Camellia sinensis var. assamica and Camellia sinensis var. sinensis, with the assamica varietal holding the majority of production. Tea production is one of the main sources of foreign exchange for Sri Lanka, and accounts for 2% of GDP, contributing over US$1.3 billion in 2021 to the economy of Sri Lanka.^[22] It employs, directly or indirectly, over 1 million people, and in 1995 directly employed 215,338 on tea plantations and estates. In addition, tea planting by smallholders is the source of employment for thousands whilst it is also the main form of livelihoods for tens of thousands of families. Sri Lanka is the world's fourth-largest producer of tea. In 1995, it was the world's leading exporter of tea (rather than producer), with 23% of the total world export, and Sri Lanka ranked second on tea export earnings in 2020^[23] after China. The highest production of 340 million kg was recorded in 2013, while the production in 2014 was slightly reduced to 338 million kg.^[24]

The humidity, cool temperatures, and rainfall of the country's central highlands provide a climate that favors the production of high-quality tea. On the other hand, tea produced in low-elevation areas such as Matara, Galle and Ratanapura districts with high rainfall and warm temperature has high level of astringent properties. The tea biomass production itself is higher in low-elevation areas. Such tea is popular in the Middle East. Sri Lanka produces mostly orthodox black teas but also produces CTC, white and green teas. The two types of green tea produced are the gunpowder type and sencha.^[25] The industry was introduced to the country in 1867 by James Taylor, a British planter who arrived in 1852.^{[26][27][28][29][30][31][32]}

Tea planting under smallholder conditions has become popular in the 1970s. Most of Sri Lanka's export market is in the Middle East and Europe but there are also plenty of bidders worldwide for its speciality high-country grown Nuwara Eliya teas.^[25]

Tea plantation at about 1,800 m above sea level in Namunukula, Hill Country

Fruits and vegetables[]

Around eighty different varieties of fruits and vegetables are grown in Sri Lanka's varied agro-climatic areas. The cool and salubrious climatic conditions in the hill country are ideal for temperate crops such as carrot, leek, cabbage, cauliflower, salad leaves, beet, bean, bell pepper, and salad cucumber. The well-demarcated low country and dry wet areas are suitable for a variety of tropical fruits and vegetables ranging from green chilli, red onion, pumpkin, bitter gourd, melon, sweet and sour banana types, queen pineapple, papaya, mango, lemon and gherkins.

Certain indigenous yams colloquially named innala (Lecranthus) and kiri ala (Xanthasoma sagittifolium), underwater stems of kohila (Lasia spinosa) and nelum ala (Nymphea lotus) and fruits and pods of perennial crops such as bread fruit, young jak and murunga are foreign exchange spinners of the country. It is the same with special flavored Sri Lankan pineapple, mangosteen, ripe jak, avocado, rambutan, starfruit and anoda.

Sri Lanka produces more than 800,000 metric tons of fruits and vegetables annually and exports both fresh and processed varieties to many destinations in the world. 90 per cent of the fresh product is targeted to the Middle East and the Maldives and almost about 75 percent of the processed products go to the European market.^[33]

Currently Sri Lanka is looking to obtain arid-climate-resistant fruit species from Egypt to develop agriculture in the dry zones of Sri Lanka.^[34]

Agrotechnology parks[]

Sri Lanka's first agrotechnology park was established in Kandy district. The park is bounded on three sides by the river Mahaweli in the historically important place of Gannoruwa in Kandy and lies at an altitude of 473 m (1550 ft) above sea level in a total area of two square kilometers. The second agrotechnology park was established in Hambantota district adjoining the government farm in Batatha.^[35]

Development issues[]

According to the World Bank:^[36]

• Weaknesses in strategy and policy
• Heavy public sector regulatory interventions in commodity and input/factor markets
• Weak delivery of services in rural areas
• Destructive impact of civil conflict and tsunami

Transition to organic farming[]

In 2021 Sri Lanka started the first "100% organic farming" program and imposed a countrywide ban on inorganic fertilizers and pesticides in June 2021. The program was welcomed by its advisor Vandana Shiva,^[37] but ignored critical voices from scientific and farming community who warned about possible collapse of farming,^{[38][39][40][41][42]} including financial crisis due to devaluation of national currency pivoted around tea industry.^[38]

By September 2021, Sri-Lanka experienced massive drop in farming output by up to 50% and food shortages. The situation in tea industry was described as critical, with farming under the organic program being described as 10x more expensive and producing half of the yield by the farmers.^[43] In September 2021 the government announced "economic emergency", as the situation was further aggravated by falling national currency exchange rate, inflation rising as result of high food prices, and pandemic restrictions in tourism which further decreased country's income.^[44]

Sri Lanka wants to transition to 100% biological agriculture; the trade in chemical fertilizers and pesticides has been banned. This fact produced a severe economic crisis, since the population expects to remain without income and without food.^[45][46][47] The government cancelled some of these measures, but importing urea remains banned.^[48] Sri Lanka is seeking to introduce peacetime rationing of essential goods.^[46]

In November 2021, Sri Lanka abandoned its plan to become the world's first organic farming nation following rising food prices and weeks of protests against the plan.^[49]

References[]