Early Caliphate navy
| Caliphate navy | |
|---|---|
 ar-rāyat as-sawdāʾ black standard which used by the early Quraish tribe and the Rashidun caliphate as war standard[1] | |
| Active | 638–743 |
| Allegiance | Rashidun Caliphate, early Umayyad caliphate[2] |
| Type | Naval force |
| Size | 200-1,800 ships[3][4][5][6][7] |
| Ports |
|
| Nickname(s) | Caliphate navy[11]/"Jihad state" navy[Notes 1] |
| Engagements |
|
The Arab Empire maintained and expanded a wide trade network across parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. This helped establish the Arab Empire (including the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates) as the world's leading extensive economic power throughout the 8th-13th centuries according to the political scientist John M. Hobson.[13] It is commonly believed that Mu‘awiya Ibn Abi Sufyan was the first planner and establisher of the Islamic navy. Although the first Islamic naval expedition in history took place in AH 17/638 CE during the caliphate of ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab and was led by al-‘Ala Ibn al-Hadrami, the governor of Bahrain, against Persia; it ended with a trapped Islamic army nearby Istakhr.
The early caliphate naval conquest managed to mark long time legacy of Islamic maritime enterprises from the Conquest of Cyprus, the famous Battle of the Masts[14] up to of their successor states such as the area Transoxiana from area located in between the Jihun River(Oxus/Amu Darya) and Syr Darya, to Sindh (present day Pakistan), by Umayyad,[15] naval cove of "Saracen privateers" in La Garde-Freinet by Cordoban Emirate,[16] and the Sack of Rome by the Aghlabids in later era[17][18][19]
Historian Eric E. Greek grouped Rashidun military constitution with their immediate successor states from the Umayyad until at least Abbasid caliphate era, along with their client emirates, as single entity, in accordance of Fred Donner criteria of functional states.[20] This grouping were particularly apply to the naval forces of the caliphate as a whole.[21] Meanwhile, Blankinship does not regard the transition of rule from Rashidun to Umayyad as the end of the military institution of the early caliphate, including its naval elements .[22] This remains at least until the end of the rule of the 10th Umayyad caliph, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, as Jihad as religious and political main motive for the military of 'early Jihad state' which spans from Rashidun caliphate until Hisham were still regarded by Blankinship as the same construct.[23]
Historical background[]
The history of Arabian Peninsula navigation was recorded at least from 2,000 years BC,[24] to even as far as the era of Sargon of Akkad (r. c. 2334-2284 BCE), when shipping industry in Magan, in present-day Oman are mentioned.[25][26] The Belitung ship is the oldest discovered Arabic ship to reach the Asian sea, dating back over 1,000 years.[27] Meanwhile, French archaeologist Roman Gershman has presented the descriptionof earliest contact of the Arabs to the east even further back to 15,000 BC Arabian invasion on Iran, as Iran were the hub for the Indian subcontinent and far east Asia.[28] Gus van Beek noted that all scholars accepted the south Arabians were engaged in early maritime trade on the Indian Ocean to the Arabian sea.[29] Gus van Beek also theorized the scheduling of the Arabo Indian naval trade were similar with modern era, which is usually done during southwest monsoon.[29] Hojjatollah Hezariyan concludes that the maritime trade activity on the Arabian gulf as indication of the earliest human navigation in history.[28]
Pre-Islamic Arabian maritime history[]
The pre-Islamic Arabian navigation and sea trade prosperred on the beaches of Yemen, Hadhramaut, Oman, Yemen, and Hejaz, It was long contested by various powers in attempt to control the sea trade.[28] According to Watts, the Quraish “were prosperous merchants who had obtained something similar to a trade monopoly between the Indian Ocean and East Africa on the one hand and the Mediterranean on the other.[30] Aside from trade hub for goods arriving on the caravans from Yemen Syria, Mecca was also from merchant ships arriving from Abyssinia at the port of Shaybah near Jeddah.[31][32]
The south Arabian navigation history were suggested by Gus van Beek that they are developed through their constant contacts with advanced maritime civilization.[29] According to biblical historiographical research by Charles Henry Stanley Davis, a semitic maritime civilization named Phoenicia which dated from 1100 and 200 BC has long time planted colonies of merchants in Yemen.[33] The prosperity of Gerrhan caused the Yemen and the Phoenician in the opening of Indian route commerce.[34] The Phoenician colonies in Yemen has shipped merchant vessels came from India unloaded their cargoes in Yemen coasts and carried them across the Arabian desert to their hometown in Levant.[33] The Phoenician merchants also settled in Persian gulf in their effort of transporting commodities from India to their hometown.[35] Thus the trade activities between the local Yemenites and the Phoenician has formed a prosper ancient Arab kingdom, Gerrha.[34] The commodities which brought by the Phoenician from Yemen and Persian gulf were transported with Arabian caravan crossing the desert towards Levant.[35]
During the second century 2nd century B.C, The Arabs, particularly the Azd branch who lived in east and south of Arabia,[36] were recorded has already dominated the seaborne enterprises between the Red Sea and India,[37] or even the 8th century BCE.[38][32] This historical tradition serves as the background after the advent of Islam for Muslim warriors, preachers, merchants and travelers to navigate not only in the Southern Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and parts of African Atlantic, but also the vast Indian Ocean.[16] The Arabs controlled also controlled the commerce from "Ezana" (the East African coast north of Somalia) to Indonesia,[39] and Sri Lanka to Oman, as Chinese explorer in 414, Faxian reported he met some Arab merchats in Sri Lanka,[40] the Euphrates past al-Hirah.[41] Later in the middle of the 6th century CE, one of the seven pre-Islamic poets, Tarafa bin al-’Abd, mentioned the water passage of khaliya safin in the sea. According to Arab chroniclers, khaliya safin were ‘great ships’, or ‘ships that travel without seamen to make them move’. These monopoly once contested by the Greeks, who tried to challenge Arab control of maritime trade between India and Egypt during the early Middle Ages. However, they persisted as the Greek naval trade dwindled.[42] Biblical historiography also mentioned such Arabian mercantilism as Quran mentions trade with Sheba[43] The Old Testament, while Book of Ezekiel mentioned Arabia and princes of Kedar trading lambs, rams, goats, and other materials.[44]
Later in the third century AD, inscription from Hadramaut has recorded the existence of 47 ships in the port of Qāni' has shown the strength of the Himyarite navy,[45] While in the late sixth century, the southern Arabia were caught in the naval campaign that involved Sasanian Empire and the Aksumite Empire in a conflict series over control of the Himyarite Kingdom in Yemen, Southern Arabia. After the Battle of Hadhramaut and the Siege of Sana'a in 570, where according to Tabari, the undermanned Yemeni-Sasanian alliance won a "miraculous" victory,[46] and the Aksumites were expelled from the Arabian peninsula.[47][48][49] The naval influence from Sasanid during that conflict prospered and continued until the emergence of Islam[50]
Meanwhile, the eastern Arab also recorded naval activity, as during the rule of Shapur II, the Sassanid forces were recorded to be engaged in naval conflict with Arab pirates which operated within Arabian Gulf, where their incursions have reached as far as Gor.[51][52] After the era of Shapur II, An coastal settlement of migratory independent Azd Arab in Qalhat are recorded for their pride for their ancestors long time resistances against Sassanid Empire.[53] However, there is report the Sasanian influences in Dibba, Sohar, and other ports within coastal Arabic kingdom of Julandi dynasty in the 5th-6th AD. At one uncertain location, Sasanian military of at has placed 4,000 troops to guard the coastal trade routes of the Sassanids.[54][55] While Bahrain island also experienced a strong garrison of Sassanid[54]Asawira patrolling their island in Darin port[55] Hojjatollah Hezariyan gave the outline of Oman political situation as for the first three centuries AD, coastal areas of Oman were parctically divided between the Azd Arabs and the Sassanian Empire.[28]
[]
During the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad, there were limited maritime activities such as the military expedition of Alqammah ibn Mujazziz.[56][57] When 'Alqamah bin Mujazziz Al-Mudlaji dispatched with 300 men to fight against some men from the Kingdom of Aksum, who gathered near the shores of Jeddah as they approached Mecca.[58][59] Abd and Jayfar from Oman coast has previously cut ties with the Sassanid Empire, and swear loyalty to Muhammad,[8] while Bahraini Al-Ala al-Hadhrami also gave his loyalty by sending a tribute of 80,000 Dirham to Muhammad.[54]
Ridda wars[]
After the death of Muhammad, Abu Bakr was unanimously accepted as head of the Muslim as Caliph. Troubles emerged soon following as Apostasy spread across Arabian Peninsula with the exception of the people in Mecca, Medina, Ta'if and the Bani Abdul Qais of Oman.[60] This resulted in the long pacification campaigns of Ridda wars. During the campaign, Abu Bakar had secured the support from Abd Al-Juland and his brother Jayfar, Azd Arab rulers of large harbors of coastal Oman.[54] Then the Julandi siblings also gave ultimatum to the Sassanid elements within their kingdom to submit to Islam, which the Sassanid garrisons refused and expelled from the coasts as result, thus giving the newborn caliphate a vast coastal ports on eastern Arabia.[54] The Sassanid navy were pushed by the Muslim forces in the eastern Arabia who pursued them overseas even as far as Dastagird.[54] The Sassanids that were encased in Dastagird then sued for peace and paying ransom so the Muslim forces pursuing them agreed to leave return.[54] Meanwhile, in Arab kingdom of Bahrain, situation were also in the favour of Rashidun caliphate as Al-Ala al-Hadhrami, the ruler of the kingdom who has pledged allegiance to the caliphate along with Arfajah, al-Ala general and the first Muslim Arab naval commander according .[61]
Red sea & Persia[]
In the year 12 AH (633 AD), Arfajah led further naval operation and conquered a large number of islands in the Gulf of Oman.[62] Ahmed Cevdet Pasha, who narrated from the text of Al-Waqidi, pointed that Arfajah did not have trouble to raise an army and ships which needed to mount this naval invasion without the support of central caliphate, due to his notably wealthiness and powerful influence of followers from within his clan. Ahmed Jawdat further narrated that the background of Arfajah naval expedition from Al-Waqidi's book that Arfajah were filled by impetuous Jihad motivation as he launched the expedition without the permission of Umar, boarded the ships and marched for the conquest in the Sea of Oman.[63] However, Cevdet Pasha mistook as he though this campaign occurred during Umar caliphate, while in reality it is occurred during caliphate of Abu Bakr.[64] Tabari narrated that as caliph Abu Bakar learned Arfajah acted without his consent, he immediately dismissed Arfajah from the navy command.[65] Later during the era of Umar, Naval activity of the caliphate continued as ‘Alqama crossed the Red Sea toward Abyssinia with permission from Umar. The expedition was disastrous, and only a few ships returned safely to their home port. This accident probably became the reason of the reluctance of ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattab to embark such naval adventures again for most time of his reign.[66] Meanwhile in Bahrain, there constant naval raids by Persians.[67] Arfajah, who just conquered the town of Sawad immediately called back to Bahrain to reinforce al-Ala.[68]
|
| Caliph Umar praise Arfajah in his letter to Utbah ibn Ghazwan.[69] |
In the end of the year 13 AH (634 AD), al Ala ibn Hadhrami commanded Arfajah started sending ships and boats for further maritime expedition,[70] as they are ordered by caliph Umar to detach himself from Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha while they are in Hirah.[71] This time, Arfajah, under al Ala, were attacking the island of to exterminate the feeling apostate rebels who flee from mainland of Arabian peninsula toward that island.[72] Arfajah led the first Arab-Islamic naval campaign in history against Arab rebels on their own place in the final battle in Island of and .[73] The caliphate mariners also facing Persian Sassanid forces in Darin, as contrary to their the Sassanian marines in Yemen of the Abna under Fayruz al-Daylami who pledge their allegiance to Abu Bakar and worked harmoniously with the Arabians in Yemen to quell the rebellion, the Sassanid mariners counterparts in Oman and Bahraini refused to submit to the caliphate.[74] In the final battle of Darin island in the fortress of Zarah, the caliphate mariners has finally subdued the final resistance after Arfajah soldier named Al-Bara' ibn Malik manage to kill the Persian Marzban commander, and managed to seize the wealth of the said commander of 30,000 coins after the battle.[75][76][Notes 2] However, caliph 'Umar saw that it was too much for single person to acquire spoils of war that huge, so the Caliph decided that al-Bara' should be given a fifth of that spoils instead of whole.[75][Notes 3]
After the island were subdued, Arfajah, under instruction from al Ala, started to sending ships towards Sassanid coast in Port of Tarout of the island. This continued Until Arfajah reached the port of Borazjan, where according to Ibn Sa'd Arfajah sunk many Persian navy ships in this battle,[78] Shuaib Al Arna'ut and al-Arqsoussi recorded the words of Al-Dhahabi regarding Arfaja naval campaign during this occasion: "...Arfaja sent to the coast of Persia, destroying many (enemy) ships, and conquered the island and build mosque..".[79]
It is said by historians this Arfajah operations in the coast of Arabian Gulf secured the water ways for Muslims army and paving the way for the later Muslim conquest of Pars.[80] Ibn Balkhi wrote that Arfajah write his progress to al Ala, who in turn inform to 'Umar.[81] This satisfy 'Umar, who in turn instructed al Ala to further resupply Arfajah who still continued fighting off coast,[82] which Arfajah responds continued the naval campaigns the mainland of Fars.[83] The coastal incursions commenced by Arfajah spans from Jazireh-ye Shif to an Island,[84] which identified by Ahmad ibn Mājid as Lavan Island Then continued to until they reached Kharg Island.[85] Poursharianti recorded this second Arfajah naval adventure were ended with the annexation of Kharg, in month of Safar, 14 AH.[86]
However, this time caliph 'Umar disliked Arfajah unnecessarily dragged sea adventures, as the naval forces of Arfajah were originally dispatched to support Utbah ibn Ghazwan to conquer Ubulla.[83] Shortly, 'Umar instructed to dismiss Arfajah from his command and reassign al-Ala ibn Hadrami as his replacement.[83] although, Donnes said in his version that al-Ala passed away before he could assume the position.[83] regardless the versions, the caliph then later instructed Arfajah to bring 700 soldiers from Bahrain to immediately reinforce Utbah who is marching towards Al-Ubulla.[87] Arfajah manage to rendezvouz with Utbah later in the location that will became a Basra city, and together they besiege Ubulla until they managed to capture the port city.[88]
Independent campaign in Pars[]
During the undergoing campaigns against Persian Sassanid, Al-Ala al-Hadhrami organised his mariners for another naval expedition in to three corps to attack Fars without consent from the caliph. They departed Bahrain by ship and travelled across the Persian Gulf to present day Iran that started raiding Persepolis.[89] The three corp commanders were:
- al-Jarud ibn Mu’alla
- al-Sawwar ibn Hammam
- Khulayd ibn al-Mundhir ibn Sawa
The first two corps were defeated, while Khulayd were cut off from their ships by the Persians leaving the army trapped in Fars. ‘Umar angrily wrote to the governor of Basra, ‘Utbah bin Ghazwan and said, Al-Ala’ has commenced naval operation without his approval, while also sending reinforcements to rescue the ill-fated mariners of Al-Ala' who trapped inside enemy territory.[90]
In response, Utbah sent an army of 12,000 fighters, which led by Asim ibn Amr al-Tamimi, Arfajah bin Harthama, Ahnaf ibn Qais, and Abu Sabrah bin Abi Rahm.[91][92] In this rescue operation, Arfajah advising Utbah a strategy to sent the forces of Abu Sabrah alone to the coastal area, in order to bait the Sassanid forces while hiding their main forces beyond the sight of the enemy and even the isolated Muslim forces that they intend to rescue. Then as Sassanid army saw Abu Sabrah came with only few soldiers, they immediately gave chase as they though it is the whole Muslim reinforcement soldiers. At this certain moment, Utbah commence Arfajah final plan to commit his main forces to flank the unexpected Sassanid force, causing heavy casualties on them and routing them, thus this operation of relieving the Muslim mariners which has being posed to danger of being isolated in the Persian soil were succeeded.[93][94]
Umar then dismissed Al-Alaa as governor of Bahrain and appointed him to govern Basra.[95] The governor of Ta'if, Uthman ibn Abu-al-Aas appointed to manage military affair in Bahrain and Oman in 638 in the aftermath of this disastrous naval operation by Al -Ala against the Sasanian province of Fars.[96] Ibn Abu al-Aas immediately consolidated mariner forces from the port of Julfar(now Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah) then began his assault against Fars Sasanian until he subdued Bishapur in 643, [97] before continued sustained naval assault in littoral Iran which preceded the campaign in coastal Hind which only ended decade later about 650 when Sassanid power in Fars crumbled.[98]
Coastal campaign of Hind[]
The campaign in Hind managed to draw the area Transoxiana from area located in between the Jihun River(Oxus/Amu Darya) and Syr Darya, to Sindh (present day Pakistan).[15] Then Ibn Abu al-Aas dispatched naval expeditions against the remaining ports and positions Sassanids.[12] This naval operation immediately conflicted Hindu kingdoms of Kapisa-Gandhara in modern-day Afghanistan, Zabulistan and Sindh.[99][100] As Ibn al-Aas delegate the expeditions against Thane and Bharuch toward his brother, Hakam. Another sibling named al-Mughira were given the command to invade Debal.[101] Al-Baladhuri states they were victorious at Debal and Thane, and the Arabs returning to Oman without incurring any fatalities.[102] The raids were launched in late 636c. 636.[103][104] The contemporary Armenian historian Sebeos confirms these Arab raids against the Sasanian littoral.[12] However, this naval operations were launched without Umar's sanction and he disapproved of them upon learning of the operations.[100]
Nevertheless, They continued pushing as in 639 or 640, Ibn Abu-al-Aas and al-Hakam once again captured and garrisoned Arab troops in the Fars town of Tawwaj near the Persian Gulf coast, southwest of modern Shiraz. while delegate the affair of Bahrain to al-Mughira.[105][12] In 641 Ibn al-Aas established his permanent fortress at Tawwaj.[105] From Tawwaj in the same year, he captured the city of Reishahr and killed the Sasanian governor of Fars, Shahruk.[105] By 642 Ibn Abu-al-Aas subjugated the cities of Jarreh, Kazerun and al-Nubindjan.[105] until they reached "The Frontier of Al Hind", where now they engaged the first land battle against a ruler of an Indian kingdom named Rutbil, King of Zabulistan.[106] in the Battle of Rasil in 644 AD.[107][108][109] According to Baloch, the reasons Uthman ibn Abi al-'As launch this campaign without caliph consent were possibly zeal-driven adventures for the cause of jihad (holy struggle).[110] Meanwhile, George Malagaris opined this expedition have limited aim to protect the sea trade of caliphate from pirates attack.[111]
Nevertheless, this naval campaign towards Hind immediately terminated the moment Uthman ibn al-Affan ascended as caliph, as he immediately instructed the incumbent commanders of the expedition towards Makran, al-Hakam and Abdallah ibn Mu'ammar at-Tamimi, to cease their campaign and withdraw their position from river in Hind.[112]
Mediterranean campaign[]
After the death of Umar, Uthman succeeded him as caliph. During the first half of his reign. the Rashidun army continued the conquests of Africa, Syria, and Persia further, while also began coastal raids in 652.[113]At this point, Rashidun caliphate reached the Sasanian eastern frontiers extended up to the lower Indus River. One of the first naval project from caliph Uthman were sending instruction to Abdallah ibn Mu'ammar at-Tamimi, the frontline commander of Rashidun army and fleet who has reached Makran to cancel his advance and retreat until the back of the river of Hind[114]
First Cyprus conquest[]
In 648 AD, Mu'awiyah convinced the caliph A new navy had to be established in order to confront Byzantine naval threat. So he recruited Ubadah ibn al-Samit, along with some veteran companions of Muhammad such as Miqdad Ibn al-Aswad, Abu Dhar GhiFari, Shadaad ibn Aws, Khalid bin Zayd al-Ansari, and Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, participated in building the first Muslim standing Navy in Mediterrania which led by Muawiya. Later Ubadah also joined Abdallah ibn Qais to built the first batch of the ships in Acre.[115]
Muawiyah and Ubadah departed from Acre and brough massive fleet of 1,700 ships to Cyprus, as they reinforced by Abdallah ibn Sa'd also joined them from Alexandria.[116][117] Muawiya and Abdallah ibn Sa'd forces pacified almost every Byzantine garrison.[118][119] The entire island of Cyprus surrendered for the first time after their capital, Salamis, besieged for an unspecified time.[118] Later the Cypriots agreed for paying 7,200 gold coins Jizya annually.[117] In a different narrative the raid was instead conducted by Mu'awiya's admiral Abd Allah ibn Qays, who landed at Salamis before occupying the island.[120] In either case, the Cypriots were forced to pay a tribute.[120][121]
Asia Minor & Ruad Island[]
After Cyprus pacified, Abdullah ibn Qais, one of the caliphate admiral continued his cruise in the Mediterranean Sea at the vicinity of Cyprus.[31] Ibn Qais is accredited with having fought fifty naval battles presumable along coasts of Asia Minor in all of which he was victorious.[118][119] In all these battles not a single Muslim was killed or drowned.[31] Because of these victories the exploits of Abdullah ibn Qais became legendary sea warrior of Islam, result of his victories he won great booties and he enjoyed popularity among the common men even in the enemy territory.[31][118] When the conquest of the island was reported to Uthman he felt satisfied with the result of the first naval expedition. That made Uthman feel that the fears of Umar about naval warfare were unfounded.[118]
In 649, Caliphate mariners from the Island of Cyprus began infesting Ruad island which located in coasts between Tripoli and protoplasm, in front of the city of Tartus. Junada ibn Abi Umayyah ad Dawsi brought Four thousand men to invade Arwad with twenty boats, and a Greek guide who has been promised the safety of him and his family and treasury in return for his assist.[122] When they approached the island, the guide ordered them to anchor in the sea on the surface of the water.[122] As the Muslim mariners approached Ruad garrison, fight immediately erupted and all of the Byzantines soldiers either killed or rest fled and took shelter in the houses.[122] With the spoils to Muawiyah, Muawiyah took out a fifth of it and sent it to Medina, and what was left of that he divided among the Muslims.[122]
Second conquest of Cyprus[]
In 652, the Cyprus island rebelled against the caliphate.[31][118] In response, Muawiyah returned while bringing an armada of 500 ships .[123][118] This time Mu'awiyah and al-Samit split their forces into two: one led by Mu'awiyah and the other by Abdallah ibn Sa'd.[118] However Umm Haram, Wive of Ubadah ibn al-Samit accidentally fell when he rode a mule as the ships landed at a spot two hours distant from Larnaca, broke her neck and was buried at that spot. The place where her tomb is now Hala Sultan Tekke mosque was built nearby her burial location[31]
This punitive campaign was described in Tarikh fi Asr al-Khulafa ar-Rashidin as particularly brutal as many died in the campaign and many men from the Cyprus forces were taken captive.[118] Lapethos was heavily damaged, while population often had to flee and take refuge in the interior,[124] and the Arabs plundered the island, built a fortified city with a mosque, and left a garrison of 12,000 men.[31] After they pacified Cyprus for the second time, Muawiyah tasked Ubadah to manage the spoils of war. Muawiyah also transferred portions of Muslim settlers from Baklabak, Syria, to Cyprus while also constructing mosques to help Islamization on the Island.[118] Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj of the Kinda tribe remained on the island for several years.[125]
Battle of the Masts & Sicily[]
Later, in same year an invasion commanded by either Abd Allah ibn Abi Sarh, or Mu'awiya's lieutenant Abu'l-A'warcaptured most of the island.[14] Olympius, the Byzantine exarch of Ravenna, came to Sicily to oust the invaders but failed.[126] According to Michael the Syrian, shortly after this, in 653/654, Abu al-A'war commanded an expedition against Kos, which was captured and plundered due to the treason of the local bishop.[127] He proceeded to pillage Crete and Rhodes.[128] Rhodes was occupied by the naval forces of Caliph Muawiyah I in 654, who carried off the remains of the Colossus of Rhodes.[129][130] The island was again captured by the Arabs in 673 as part of their first attack on Constantinople. When their fleet was destroyed by Greek fire before Constantinople and by storms on its return trip, however, the Umayyads evacuated their troops in 679/80 as part of the Byzantine–Umayyad peace treaty.[131]
Later in the same year, the caliphate launched the most successful military operation in the famous Battle of the Masts, or Battle of Dhat al-Shawary. The Byzantine fleet commanded by the Byzantine Emperor Constans II was forced to sail to Sicily to intercept the Muslim fleet.[14] Shortly before the naval battle of Phoenix, two brothers belonging to a Christian family from the Syrian port of Tripoli, after having committed serious sabotage in the Muslim fleet, escaped and joined the Byzantines .[4] Due to this serious sabotage, the caliphate arrived in the battle outnumbered by a margin of nearly 1 to 3 ships,[4] Ibn Khaldun giving number the Byzantine brought 600 ships.[132]
Waqidi reported the Byzantines drew their ships into tight formation.[31] Firsthand witness Malik ibn Aws ibn al-Hadathaan, who was one of the naval officers present at the battle, narrates that the Sea wind blowing unfavorably against the Muslim positions, which forced them to dropped the anchor of the ships. As the wind stopped blowing, the Muslim soldiers taunted the Byzantines to do the battle in land, which the Byzantine refused.[133] In response, the Muslims drew lashed their ships together in closed formation. 'Abdallah ibn Sa'd formed the Muslims in ranks along the sides of the ships and began ordering them ready in battle station while reciting Qur'an.[31] As the Byzantine soldiers closing their ships, the Muslims fought them in close combat bitterly until the tide turned and the Byzantine forces instead were repelled.[31] At one occasion, The Byzantine ships tried to drag and capture Abdullah ibn Sa'd command ship by tying their ships together with Ibn Sa'd command ship and trying to drag it away .[134] However, a brave marine named ‘Ilqimah ibn Yazeed al-Ghutayfi sacrificed himself by jumping on the ropes and cutting them, saving Abdullah ibn Sa’d and the command ship.[134]
Byzantine casualties were massive, that the emperor himself just narrowly escaped from the slaughter.[31] This battle was so catastrophic in result for the Byzantines despite their numerical superiority, that Theophanes called it "The Yarmuk at the sea".[135]
Later in the year of 44 AH (664-665 AD), Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj launched a sudden attack towards island of Sicily.[136] Ibn Hudayj brought two hundred ships during this invasion which was prepared by his superior, Mu'awiyah.[137] Ibn Hudayj managed to seized massive spoils of war from this campaign, when he returned to Levant in 645 AD.[137] According to Al-Baladhuri, He invaded the island of Sicily on the authority of Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, and the first Muslim commander to infest the island.[138] After the first invasion, Ibn Hudayj continued the to raid the island routinely for the rest of Muslim conquest.[139]
Isles of Hispania[]
Tabari reported that after the conquest of northern Africa was completed,[140] Abdullah ibn Sa'd continued to Spain. Spain had first been invaded some sixty years earlier during the caliphate of Uthman. Other prominent Muslim historians, like Ibn Kathir,[141] quoted the same narration. In the description of this campaign, two of Abdullah ibn Saad's generals, Abdullah ibn Nafi ibn Husain, and Abdullah ibn Nafi' ibn Abdul Qais, were ordered to invade the coastal areas of Spain by sea as they succeeded in conquering the coastal areas of Al-Andalus. The expedition did conquer some portions of Spain during the caliphate of Uthman, presumably establishing colonies on its coast. On this occasion, Uthman is reported to have addressed a letter to the invading force:
Constantinople will be conquered from the side of Al-Andalus. Thus if you conquer it you will have the honour of taking the first step towards the conquest of Constantinople. You will have your reward in this behalf both in this world and the next.[141]
According to the account of al-Tabari, when North Africa had been duly conquered by Abdullah ibn Sa'd, two of his generals, , and , were commissioned to invade the coastal areas of Spain by sea.[141]
Later, Mu'awiyah has captured Rhodes, which were saw as major loss to the Byzantines as it was important trade route. The pacification of Rhodes were mounted by Junada ibn Abi Umayya al-Azdi who according to early Muslim sources oversaw the naval raids against the Byzantine Empire during the governorship of Syria by Mu'awiyah. However, their activity were halted during the First Muslim Civil War(656–661).[142]
Umayyad era[]
Some historians treated Rashidun armed forces, navy included, as single entity with their successors armed forces.[143][11][144] Historian Eric E. Greek remarked The immediate successor of Rashidun caliphate, Umayyad, were quickly absorbed state institution mechanism of the former.[143] By this fact, Greek grouped military constitution of Rashidun with later successor caliphates along with their emirate clients as one entity. Greek based this grouping accordingly using Fred Donner criteria of functional states,[20] While Khalilieh noted the successor caliphates and emirates technically inherited the naval rights of Rashidun mariners.[11] Furthermore, researchers of Tahkim(political arbitration) and Suluh(political reconciliation) of Islamic jurisprudence theory generally agreed reconciliation between Hasan ibn Ali with Muawiyah were lawful in accordance of Islamic jurists, as Khakimov theorized that the ascension of Muawiyah are viewed as a legal transfer of power in the scope of caliphal institution, not a coup change of regime.[145]
Junada ibn Abi Umayya, ex-Rashidun naval commander who now served the Umayyad navy, resumed his raids,[146] as at least one raid led by Junada against the Byzantines in Rhodes in the period of 672/73–679/80.[147][148][149] Later, Junada leading two more naval campaigns against Rhodes in 678/79 and 679/80.[150] Tabari recorded Junada established a permanent Arab garrison in Rhodes, but the colony was frequently harassed by Byzantine ships which caused him to evacuate the colony.[147] Although, another Rashidun general that continued to serve Umayyad caliphate, Abu al-A'war remained on the island with 12,000 garrison soldiers until the peace treaty of 680, following the failure of the First Arab Siege of Constantinople. Abu al-A'war seems to have commanded this garrison for some time, since the 10th-century Byzantine emperor Constantine VII records that Abu al-A'war erected a tomb for his daughter, who died there, which survived to Constantine's day.[127] Aside from Rhodes, Junada also invaded Crete, and unnamed island in Sea of Marmara.[151]
Conquest of India[]
Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, governor of 'Superprovince' of Iraq, were sending his nephew, a 15 years old Muhammad ibn Qasim, with naval force departed from port of Basra consisted of 6,000 Syrian horsemen, 6,000 camel troops with 3,000 Bactrian camel carrying supplies, and also five large Manjaniq (catapult) engine named 'Uroos' (literal name 'The Bride') which required 500 men to operate it. Ibn Qasim successfully subdued port of Debal, port of Armabil (now Bela, Balochistan) and port of Debal, after joined with nearby Arab garrison land forces on the area, which rendezvouz with Ibn Qasim naval force on the same day in Debal.[152] Since the era of Rashidun caliphate of Umar, the Muslim naval forces were aimed to control the coastal areas of Balochistan as it is invaluable for sea patrol within the Arabian gulf to Indian sea lane.[153]
After conquering Brahmanabad in Sindh, Ibn Qasim co-opted the local Brahman elite, whom he held in esteem, re-appointing them to posts held under the Brahman dynasty and offering honours and awards to their religious leaders and scholars.[154] Following his success in Sindh, Muhammad bin Qasim wrote to `the kings of Hind' calling upon them to surrender and accept the faith of Islam.[155] Ibn Qasim then sent a cavalry of 10,000 to Kanauj, along with a decree from the Caliph. He himself went with an army to the prevailing frontier of Kashmir called panj-māhīyāt (in west Punjab).[156] Later, Ibn Qasim was recalled in 715 CE and died en route. Al-Baladhuri writes that, upon his departure, the kings of al-Hind had come back to their kingdoms. The period of Caliph Umar II (r. 717–720) was relatively peaceful. Umar invited the kings of "al-Hind" to convert to Islam and become his subjects, in return for which they would continue to remain kings. Hullishah of Sindh and other kings accepted the offer and adopted Arab names.[157] During the caliphates of Yazid II (r. 720–724) and Hisham (r. 724–743), the expansion policy was resumed. Junayd ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Murri (or Al Junayd) was appointed the governor of Sindh in 723 CE.
After subduing Sindh, Junayd sent campaigns to various parts of India. The justification was that these parts had previously paid tribute to Bin Qasim but then stopped. The first target was al-Kiraj (possibly Kangra valley), whose conquest effectively put an end to the kingdom, and the prompting land forces invasion of the caliphate.[158]), although the outcome were not recorded.[159] Khalid Yahya Blankinship states that this was a full-scale invasion carried out with the intent of founding a new province of the Caliphate.[160] in 725, the caliphate forces fortified the ports of Mansura and Mahfuza which bordering Indus as Ribat town where the caliphate navy sent forth the naval raids.[89]
In 726 CE, the Caliphate replaced Al-Junayd by Tamim ibn Zaid al-Utbi as the governor of Sindh. During the next few years, all of the gains made by Junayd were lost, as according to Blankinship the possibility that the Indians must have revolted, or the problems were internal to the Arab forces.[161] After Tamim passed away, Al-Hakam restored order to Sindh and Kutch and built secure fortifications at Al-Mahfuzah and Al-Mansur. He then proceeded to retake Indian kingdoms previously conquered by Al-Junayd. The Arab sources are silent on the details of the campaigns. However, several Indian sources record victories over the Arab forces.[162] Indications are that Al-Hakam ibn Awana was overstretched. An appeal for reinforcements from the Caliphate in 737 is recorded, with 600 men being sent, a surprisingly small contingent. Even this force was absorbed in its passage through Iraq for quelling a local rebellion.[163] The death of Al-Hakam effectively ended the Arab presence to the east of Sindh. In the following years, the Arabs were preoccupied with controlling Sindh. They made occasional raids to the seaports of Kathiawar to protect their trading routes but did not venture inland into Indian kingdoms. These coastal incursions by al-Hakam which done in the areas which conquered by al-Junayd years ago were the last known Umayyad presence in Sind.[164]
Conquest of north Africa littorals & Iberia[]
The conquest of the Hispania section of the Iberian Peninsula which started from the era of caliph Uthman were resumed in the era of Umayyad under al-Walid I (Walid ibn Abd al-Malik). The commander of this conquest were Tariq ibn-Ziyad and Musa bin Nusair in 711 - 712. At first, Musa Ibn Nasir were given the governorate of Ifriqiya, succeeding Hassan Ibn al-Nu`man in 78 AH (697 AD).[165][166] Musa started his career in Africa by quickly pacified the rebellions of Berber remnants across northren Africa in the same year,[165] Although Ibn Idhari report it ended in 86 AH (705).[167] During his tenure in Africa, Musa were known to be able to win the crowd of his Berbers subject in Africa and make sure they did not rebelled against the caliphate[168] As the Byzantines resorted to sea invasions after losing their land battles, Musa proceeded to build an Arsenal (Dar al-Sina) near the ruins of Cartagena to build a powerful fleet to protect the frontiers. In the year 89 AH (708 AD), Musa directed his son Abdullah to invade the Balearic Islands, and subdued Mallorca and Menorca.[169] Musa also mounted naval raids towards Sardinia and Sicily,[170] which returned with huge prize of war from each raids.[171] Then Musa in turn also conquered Tangier.[172] The expedition to conquer Sardinia began in 89 AH/707-708 AD. led by Atha ibn Rafi’. It was next led by ‘Abd Allah ibn Murra who directed Musa ibn Nusayr. The latter brought back as many as 3,000 prisoners and considerable spoils of gold and silver.[173]
In 709 AD, Musa ibn Nusayr began to invade the Iberia.[174] Tariq ibn Ziyad, one of Berber Mawla of Musa, were credited for leading an army of 4.000 cavalry and 8.000 infantry defeated 100.000 visigoth army in the Battle of Guadalete as soon after he landed on Iberian peninsula[175] The Umayyad hosts of Andalusia, which in line with their successor of Emirate of Córdoba, has employed stitched war ships that harbored across the ports of Algeciras, Almuñécar, Pechina (AlmeriaVera), Cartagena, Elche, Alicante, , Qasr Abi Danish, Lisbon and Sagra[10] In the year 93 AH/ 710 AD Musa recaptured Sardinia although his fleet was destroyed on the way back, while about five decades later, on 135 AH/752-753 AD, the governor of Africa, ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib had prepared as best as possible to conquer both Sicily and Sardinia.[173]
Later, up to the farthest west, the Umayyad naval activity reached as far as the famed "pirate" cove beachheads at La Garde-Freinet in Southern France, were greatly feared. In one instance, the Muslim privateers once captured the Abbot of Cluny until ransomed by a hoard of ecclesiastical silver.[176]
Clash against Vikings[]
The Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba clashed multiple times with the Vikings around 844 AD,[177][178]
On 25 September, the Vikings arrived near Seville after sailing up the Guadalquivir.[179] They set up their base on Isla Menor, a defensible island on the Guadalquivir Marshes.[179] On 29 September, local Muslim forces marched against the Vikings but were defeated.[180] The Vikings took Seville by storm on 1 or 3 October after a brief siege and heavy fighting.[181] [182] quoting ibn Adhari[179][178] They looted and pillaged the city, and, according to Muslim historians, gave its inhabitants the "terrors of imprisonment or death" and spared "not even the beasts of burden".[183][180] When caliph Abd ar Rahman II about the fall of Seville, the aliph mobilized his forces under the leadership of his hajib, Isa ibn Shuhayd.[182] He summoned nearby governors to gather their men.[182] They assembled in Córdoba, and then marched to Axarafe, a hill near Seville, where Isa ibn Shuhayd set up his headquarters.[182] A contingent led by Musa ibn Musa al-Qasi, the leader of the semi-independent Banu Qasi principality to the north, joined this army despite Musa ibn Musa's political rivalry with Abd ar-Rahman and played an important part in the campaign.[183][184] Until Finally the Muslims won a major victory on 11 or 17 November at Talyata.[178][185] According to Muslim sources, 500 to 1000 Vikings were killed and 30 Viking ships were destroyed as the former used incendiary weapons thrown by catapults to burn Viking ships.[179] The commanders of the Vikings were killed and at least 400 were captured and many of whom were hanged from the palm-trees of Talyata[179]
On the aftermath of this conflict, The city of Seville and its suburbs were left in ruins.[178] The destruction caused by the Viking raiders terrified the people of Al-Andalus.[178] Abd ar-Rahman ordered new measures to guard against further raids.[178] He established a naval arsenal (dar al-sina'a) in Seville and built walls around the city and other settlements.[183] Ships and weaponry were made, sailors and troops were raised, and messenger networks were established to spread information about future attacks.[178][186] These measures were successful in frustrating later Viking raids in 859 and 966.[183]
Most of the Vikings sailed back to Francia (modern-day France), and their defeat by the Andalusian army might have discouraged them from attacking the Iberian Peninsula again.[179] The following year, the Vikings sent an embassy to the court of Abd ar-Rahman, who then sent the poet Yahya ibn al-Hakam (nicknamed Al-Ghazal, "the Gazelle") as an ambassador to the Vikings.[179][187] Later Islamic sources report that some of the raiders remained and settled in the area, converted to Islam, and became cheese traders.[183]
Siege of Constantinople[]
Nevertheless, The caliphate reached it high tide of as al-Mas'udi and the account of Theophanes mentioned for the Siege of Constantinople has fielded an army led by Sulaiman ibn Mu'adh al-Antaki large as 1,800 ships with 120,000 troops, and siege engines and incendiary materials (naphtha) stockpiled. The supply train alone is said to have numbered 12,000 men, 6,000 camels and 6,000 donkeys, while 13th-century historian Bar Hebraeus, the troops included 30,000 volunteers(mutawa) for the Holy War (jihad).[5] [6][7]
Organization and sea routes[]
The nature of the Ports, Sea route, and Armada of eastern Caliphate fleet were characterized by the Arabic trade route which existed before Islam, particularly the eastern route.[188]
There are some of earlier ports in Yemen that requisited by Islamic caliphate earlier before the conquest started:
- Aden, the port city of Yemen where the Sasanian governor, Badhan, converted to Islam and defected to the caliphate.[189] According to Agius, the blockade of Aden port by rulers of Kish Island during 1165 has seriously disrupted the trade line between Mediterranea and Indian sea. [190]
- Qanī(now Bi'r `Ali, Harbor in Yemen which enabled trade route directly to India without needing to stop and resupply.[191]
- Mocha, A port city in the red sea.
Nevertheless, for the next decades the caliphate acquired more important sea ports such as Bahrain, Oman, Hadramaut, Yemen, and Hejaz themselves were situated on the shores of the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, and Arabian Gulf, which suitable for maritime trades. Muslims' ships returning from India docked on the Yemen's coasts.[188] These ways are indeed the gateway for caliphate maritime contact to the far east Asia, such as India, China.[188] Baladhuri, Tabari, Dinawari, and Buzurg reported that Chinese ships were common sight in Ubulla.[192]
The route has reached even as far as Java island, when from Muawiyah and caliph Umar ibn Abdul Aziz has reached the kingdom of Srivijaya. Muawiyah, who at that time engaged in cordial and friendly letter with the king Sri Indravarman whom possibly had acquired Zanj slave as a gift from the caliphate.[193] Another sovereign in the Java island which have correspondece with Muawiyah was Queen Sima from the Kingdom of Kalingga, as the delegations from the caliphate engaged in the missions of tradings and also for Islamic Da'wah in the area. the correspondence between the Caliph with the Queen were still preserved until today in Spanish museum in Granada[194] In 2020, there is convention from local Qur'an academic institution in north Sumatra that show an Umayyad coin artifact found in Tebing Tinggi province dated from 79 AH[195]
These ports and trading routes, including those in the Red sea and Mediterranean sea has recorded to contain the caliphate Armada:
| Western Armada | 1st Cyprus(648-650) | 2nd Cyprus(652) | Phoenix(654) | Sicily(664-665) | Iberian Invasion(712-715) | Siege of Constantinople(717-718) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Eastern Armada | 1st Expansion to India(711-712) | ||||||
| Ships | 1,700[116][117] | 500[123][118] | 200[3][4] | 200[196] | 1,800[5][6][7] | ||
| Crews | 12,000 Soldiers[118] | 12,000 soldiers(4,000 cavalry; 8,000 infantry)[176] | 12,000 soldiers(6,000 Horse Cavalry & infantry; 6,000 Camel cavalry)[197] | 30,000-120,000 Soldiers; 12,000 Logistic convoy(12,000 mens; 6,000 camels; 6,000 donkeys)[5][6][7] | |||
| Siege engines | 5 'Arus Manjaniq( a type of gigantic Catapult require 500 personnels to operate one of it)[197] | unknown numbers of variouse siege engines, Greek Fire/Nafta throwing catapult engines[5][6][7][198] |
Eastern sea Armada[]
The Islamic expansions in the East and the West were not destructive, Muslim authorities not only preserved all dockyards, naval bases, and systems in the former Byzantine and Persian provinces.[199] It is due to this soft policy toward the subjugated settlements, the naval influence from Sassanid and Pagan Azd Arabs were continued before the emergence of Islam,[50] were came to caliphate possession intact.[199] This were evidenced that the Sasanid forces came to supplant the Aksumite viceroys in Yemen .[48][49]
According to Hojjatollah, One of the key features of Arabian gulf was the gulf provided navigation and shipping all year with ports of the Persian Gulf, such as al-Ubullah, Siraf, Hormuz, and Kish, lying around the gulf.[28] Hojjatollah further adds, that The Muslims invasion of Sindh may as an economic necessity, while also translate as pretext for the invasion.[28] While Seyyed Suleiman Nadavi believes that the first Muslim invasions pf Tan, Bruch and Dibel Bana had aimed for economic necessities.[28]
This trends were supported by harbours on the Arabian gulf and Persia that came to caliphate possession, such as:
- Al-Ubulla/Apologus(Charax Spasinu), A harbour belonged to Sassanid situated near Charax Spasini and the River Euphrates which served as replacement of Rishar port that situated south of Al-Ubulla .[200] Al-Ubulla were notable due to the city linens and shipbuilding production.[201] The Charax mint appears to have continued through the Sassanid Empire and into the Umayyad Empire, minting coin as late as AD 715.[202] Al-Ubulla port had long time enjoyed strategic position as important centre for caravan-routes that came from the north of Mesopotamia, Mediterranea and Indian route.[203] Consequently, Ubulla in the Arab Gulf and flooded the middle east with commodities such as camphor water, teak wood, high quality Indian sword,[203] bamboo and others. During the early Muslim conquests in the 630s, Al-Ubulla was conquered by the Arab forces of Utbah ibn Ghazwan in two separate occasions by [204][205] In a letter attributed to Utbah he describes the city as "hub for al-Bahrayn (eastern Arabia), Uman, al-Hind (India) and al-Tsin (China)".,[201] At least until the Mongol invasion.[201]
- Bahrain Island, an Azd Arabian maritime settlement within Arabian Gulf which ruled by Al-Ala'a Al-Hadrami.[206][207] The Bahrain region ruled by al-Ala'a with Munzir ibn Sawa Al Tamimi jointly, and both converted to Islam with entire populace.[208][209] Bahrain proved as povital naval launchpad for the caliphate conquest toward Persian and Sindh.
- Basra, Founded by Utba ibn Ghazwan and Arfajah, caliphate first admiral.[210] At first, Arfajah built seven complexes of Garrison which fitted 700 soldiers [210] However, the city port grow fast as Baladhuri estimates that around 636 AD, the number of caliphate regular soldiers in Basra totalled 80.000 Muqatilla (regular soldier)[Notes 4]. In Umayyad time, Basra has become a launchpad for caliphate navy led by Muhammad ibn Qasim which consisted 12,000 soldiers, 6,000 one humped camels, 3,000 two humped camels, and gigantic siege engines that need 500 crews to operate.[152]
- Dibba, large natural harbor on the east coast of the northern Emirates has been an important site of maritime trade and settlement for millennia, with relatively recent excavations underpinning the importance of the town as a site of entrepot trade throughout the Iron Age and into the late pre-Islamic era.[212][60] The Oman rulers of 6th century, Abd and Jaifar Julandi has converted to Islam and supported the caliphate in Battle of Dibba[8]
- Debal, ancient founded in the 1st century CE, which was the most important trading city in Sindh. The port city was home to thousands of Sindhi sailors including the Bawarij. Ibn Hawqal, a 10th-century writer, geographer and chronicler, mentions huts of the city and the dry arid land surrounding the city that supported little agriculture. He mentions how efficiently the inhabitants of the city maintained fishing vessels and trade. The Abbasids were the first to build large stone structures including a city wall and a citadel. An earthquake in 893 AD reportedly destroyed the port city of Debal.[213] Debal became sea route used by Arabs to reach the Indian subcontinent ran from "The Euphrates of Maysan" to on the Indus River.[214]
- Julfar (in the area of today's Ras Al Khaimah) was an important port that was used as a staging post for the Islamic invasion of the Sasanian Empire.[215] During the caliphate of Abd al-Malik (65–86/685–705) it was a strategic harbour, a key to the control of Oman through the desert. Julfar was known for fishing and was a trading center which served the tribal families in the desert and mountains.
- Makran(Balochi/Persian: مكران), a semi-desert coastal strip in Sindh. first captured by Uthman ibn Abu al-Aas, and his brother Hakam ibn Abu al-Aas to raid and reconnoitre the Makran region.[216] In mid-644 the Battle of Rasil was fought here. Later it governed by the Habbari tribe after it stabilized by the conquest of Muhammad ibn Qasim during Umayyad era.
- Mansura and Mahfuza ports in Sindh bordering Indus which fortified as Ribat town for naval raids against the local kingdoms of Sindh.[89]
- Muscat, an independent Azd Arabian settlement located in Oman which retained their independence from Sassanid Empire[217][218][53][219] and was nicknamed as Cryptus Portus (the Hidden Port) by Ptolemy
- Muska(Samharam/Khor Rori).[220]
- Qalhat, an important stop in the wider Indian Ocean trade network, and was a Azd Oman coastal settlement which said where the Omani Arabs ancestors defeated the Sasanian forces in the battle of Salut. After the caliphate era, it became the second city of the kingdom of Ormus.[53]
- Rishar, a port located further south of the Al-Ubulla there is an important sea port connected the Sri-Lanka.[203] More importantly, evidence to suggest that from sasanian times, trade route for the Arabs, from the al-Ubulla has connected Indian Ocean to Mediterranean west west through the Silk road by the Euphrates river[49][221] Rishar port once housed a strong Sassanid navy which tasked to end piracy and encouraged pearl-fishing and trade.[203]
- Sohar, largest town in Oman region, it has been argued that Suhar is identified with the ancient town called 'Omanah'(Arabic: عُمَانَة) [222]
It is reported the pre-Islamic Seafaring Azd Arabian mariners[223][49] and Sasanian naval elements[224] were reportedly still strong and dominant force on those harbors, before being absorbed to the Islamic caliphate.[224][225] After the Muslim conquest of Persia, Historian David Nicolle pointed there are indication the naval war machines and crews of those harbors were absorbed by caliphate navy. This claim were attested by the Chinese source Old Book of Tang, Guangzhou was ravaged and burned by the mariners of the Arabs and the Persians in 758.[226]
Between 708 and 712 The army which departed from Shiraz under Qasim consisted of 6,000 Syrian heavy cavalry and detachments of mawali (sing. mawla; non-Arab, Muslim freedmen) from Iraq.[227] the borders of Sindh he was joined by an advance guard and 6,000 camel cavalry and later, reinforcements from the governor of Makran were transferred directly to Debal (Daybul), at the mouth of the Indus, by sea along with five manjaniks(catapults).[228] The manjaniq named al-Arus, which was. especially built at the order of Caliph al-Walid for this expedition, was so huge that 500 men used to operate it.[197]
Western Armada[]
Similar to the eastern theater, The shipyards and harbours of Syrian coasts were mostly relative intact due to relatively peaceful conquests of the caliphate.[199] Mu'awiya initiated the Arab naval campaigns against the Byzantines in the eastern Mediterranean,[229] requisitioning the harbors within Syrian coasts.[230][120] Not only absorbing them, the caliphate also founded new maritime installations—arsenals and naval centers—along their maritime possessions in,[199] as Muawiyah moved and ordered Caliphate engineer crews from eastern theater (Azd Omani Arabs according to Hossain[231] while Hourani said they are Persian engineers that has been subdued by the caliphate[232]) to repair existing ships, which seems abandoned after Battle of Yarmouk,[232][233] since commanders of Jund al Sham that involved early land campaign veterans such as Mu'awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, Ubadah ibn al-Samit, Sufyan ibn ‘Awf, Abdullah ibn Qays, Uthman ibn Abi al-As, Abdullah ibn, Sa'd, Busr ibn Abi Artat, and others, were aware of the strategic importance of the coastal frontiers of their territories along the Mediterranean.[234] The following harbours and port cities acquired by the Muslims are:
- Acre (Arabic: عكّا, ʻAkkā), Following the defeat of the Byzantine army of Heraclius by the Rashidun army of Khalid ibn al-Walid in the Battle of Yarmouk, and the capitulation of the Christian city of Jerusalem to the Caliph Umar, Acre came under the rule of the Rashidun Caliphate beginning in 638[235]
- Ayla (Arabic: آيلا). coastal settlement in Gulf of Aqaba, Sinai Peninsula, which fallen to Islamic armies by 650, and the ancient settlement was left to decay, while a new Arab city was established outside its walls under Uthman ibn Affan,[236] known as Ayla (Arabic: آيلا).
- Antioch and its port, Seleucia Pieria, was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate during the Battle of the Iron Bridge. The city became known in Arabic as أنطاكية Anṭākiyah.
- Ashkelon (Philistine: