Enhanced weathering

Enhanced weathering is weathering accelerated by spreading finely ground silicate rock, such as basalt, onto land or sea. This speeds up the chemical reactions between rocks, water and air; which remove carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere and store it permanently in solid carbonate minerals or ocean alkalinity.^[1] The latter would also slow ocean acidification.

Although existing mine tailings^[2] or alkaline industrial silicate minerals (such as steel slags, construction & demolition waste, or ash from biomass incineration) may be used at first,^[3] mining more basalt might eventually be required to limit climate change.^[4]

History[]

Enhanced weathering has been proposed for both terrestrial and ocean based carbon sequestration. Ocean methods are being tested by non-profit Project Vesta to see if they are environmentally and economically viable.^[5][6]

In July 2020 a group of scientists assessed that the geoengineering technique of enhanced rock weathering – spreading finely crushed basalt on fields – has potential use for carbon dioxide removal by nations, identifying costs, opportunities and engineering challenges.^[7][8]

Natural mineral weathering and ocean acidification mechanism[]

Stone split by frost weathering on the mountain path to the tongue of the Morteratsch glacier.

Role of carbonate in sea exchange of carbon dioxide.

Weathering is the natural process in which rocks and minerals are broken down and dissolved because of the action of water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature.^[9] It is both mechanical (breaking up the rocks - also called physical weathering or disaggregation) and chemical (changing the chemical compounds in the rocks).^[9] Biological weathering is a form of weathering (mechanical and/or chemical) by plants, fungi or other living organisms.^[9]

Chemical weathering can happen by different mechanism, depending mainly on the nature of the mineral involved: solution, hydration, hydrolysis and oxidation weathering.^[10] Carbonation weathering is a particular type of solution weathering.^[10]

Carbonate and silicate minerals are examples of minerals affected by carbonation weathering. When silicate or carbonate minerals are exposed to rainwater or groundwater, they slowly dissolve because of carbonation weathering: that is the water (H₂O) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) present in the atmosphere form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃) by the reaction:^[9][11]

H₂O + CO₂ → H₂CO₃

This carbonic acid then attacks the mineral to form carbonate ions in solution with the unreacted water. Because of these two chemical reactions (carbonation and dissolution), mineral, water and carbon dioxide combine altering the chemical composition of minerals and removing CO₂ from the atmosphere.

In particular, forsterite (a silicate mineral) is dissolved through the reaction:

Mg₂SiO₄(s) + 4H₂CO₃(aq) → 2Mg²⁺(aq) + 4HCO₃⁻(aq) + H₄SiO₄(aq)

where "(s)" indicates a substance in a solid state and "(aq)" indicates a substance in an aqueous solution.

Calcite (a carbonate mineral) is instead dissolved through the reaction:

CaCO₃(s) + H₂CO₃(aq) → Ca²⁺(aq) + 2HCO₃⁻(aq)

Water with dissolved bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻) eventually ends up in the ocean,^[11] where the bicarbonate ions are biomineralized to carbonate minerals for shells and skeletons through the reaction:

Ca²⁺ + 2HCO₃⁻ → CaCO₃ + CO₂ + H₂O

The carbonate minerals then eventually sink from the ocean surface to the ocean floor.^[11] Most of the carbonate is redissolved in the deep ocean as it sinks.

Over geological time periods these processes are thought to stabilise the Earth's climate.^[12] The ratio of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as a gas (CO₂) to the quantity of carbon dioxide converted into carbonate is regulated by a chemical equilibrium: in case of a change of this equilibrium state, it takes theoretically (if no other alteration is happening during this time) thousand of years to establish a new equilibrium state.^[11]

For silicate weathering the theoretical net effect of dissolution and precipitation is 1 mol of CO₂ sequestered for every mol of Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺ weathered out of the mineral. Given that some of the dissolved cations react with existing alkalinity in the solution to form CO₃²⁻ ions, the ratio is not exactly 1:1 in natural systems but is a function of temperature and CO₂ partial pressure. The net CO₂ sequestration of carbonate weathering reaction and carbonate precipitation reaction is zero.^{[clarification needed]}

Carbon-silicate cycle feedbacks.

Weathering and biological carbonate precipitation are thought to be only loosely coupled on short time periods (<1000 years). Therefore, an increase in both carbonate and silicate weathering with respect to carbonate precipitation will result in a buildup of alkalinity in the ocean.^{[clarification needed]}

Terrestrial enhanced weathering[]

Enhanced weathering was initially used to refer specifically to the spreading of crushed silicate minerals on the land surface.^[13][14] Biological activity in soils has been shown to promote the dissolution of silicate minerals,^[15] but there is still uncertainty surrounding how quickly this may happen. As weathering rate is a function of saturation of the dissolving mineral in solution (decreasing to zero in fully saturated solutions), some have suggested that lack of rainfall may limit terrestrial enhanced weathering,^[16] although others^[17] suggest that secondary mineral formation or biological uptake may suppress saturation and promote weathering.

The amount of energy that is required for comminution depends on rate at which the minerals dissolve (less comminution is required for rapid mineral dissolution). A 2012 study suggested a large range in potential cost of enhanced weathering largely down to the uncertainty surrounding mineral dissolution rates.^[18]

Oceanic enhanced weathering[]

To overcome the limitations of solution saturation and to use natural comminution of sand particles from wave energy, silicate minerals may be applied to coastal environments,^[19] although the higher pH of seawater may substantially decrease the rate of dissolution,^[20] and it is unclear how much comminution is possible from wave action.

Alternatively, the direct application of carbonate minerals to the up-welling regions of the ocean has been investigated.^[21] Carbonate minerals are supersaturated in the surface ocean but are undersaturated in the deep ocean. In areas of up welling this undersaturated water is brought to the surface. While this technology will likely be cheap, the maximum annual CO₂ sequestration potential is limited.

Transforming the carbonate minerals into oxides and spreading this material in the open ocean ('Ocean Liming') has been proposed as an alternative technology.^[22] Here the carbonate mineral (CaCO₃) is transformed into lime (CaO) through calcination. The energy requirements for this technology are substantial.

Mineral carbonation[]

The enhanced dissolution and carbonation of silicates ('mineral carbonation') was first proposed by Seifritz,^[23] and developed initially by Lackner et al.^[24] and further by the Albany Research Center.^[25] This early research investigated the carbonation of extracted and crushed silicates at elevated temperatures (~180 °C) and partial pressures of CO₂ (~15 MPa) inside controlled reactors ("ex-situ mineral carbonation"). Some research explores the potential of "in-situ mineral carbonation" in which the CO₂ is injected into silicate rock formations to promote carbonate formation underground (see: CarbFix).

Mineral carbonation research has largely focused on the sequestration of CO₂ from flue gas. It could be used for geoengineering if the source of CO₂ was derived from the atmosphere, e.g. through direct air capture or biomass-CCS.

Electrolytic dissolution of silicate minerals[]

Where abundant electric surplus electricity is available the electrolytic dissolution of silicate minerals has been proposed^[26] and experimentally shown. The process resembles the weathering of some minerals. In addition Hydrogen produced here would be a carbon-negative.^[27]

Cost[]

In a 2020 techno-economical analysis, the cost of utilizing this method on cropland was estimated at US$80–180 per tonne of CO₂. This is comparable with other methods of removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere currently available (BECCS (US$100–200 per tonne of CO₂)- Bio-Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage) and direct air capture and storage at large scale deployment and low-cost energy inputs (US$100–300 per tonne of CO₂). In contrast, the cost of reforestation was estimated lower than US$100 per tonne of CO₂.^[28]

See also[]

• Olivine#Uses

References[]