Joseon Army

Joseon Army
Coat of arms of Joseon
Active	14th century-1897
Disbanded	13 October 1897
Country	Korea
Allegiance	King of Joseon
Branch	Royal Guards Central Army Provincial armies and Militias
Type	Army
Role	Land
Size	84,500 (1592) 200,000 (1640s) 30,000-50,000 (1890s)
Insignia
Ensign

The Joseon Army (Korean: 조선군대; Hanja: 朝鮮軍隊) was the army of the Korean dynasty of Joseon. Since the founding of Joseon, the army fought off the Jurchen raids in the north and conquering the entire Korean peninsula. They even fought alongside the Joseon Navy to suppress the piracy in Tsushima. However, Joseon's neo-confucianism disavowed military development. By the time of the Imjin War, the army was no match for the sheer numbers of the Japanese army armed with matchlock muskets; they made rapid reforms to repel two Japanese invasions. After the war, internal strife weakened the army making them vulnerable to two Manchu invasions that forced them under the suzerainty of the Qing. Despite this, Joseon kept strengthening the military until the 19th century, when western powers and the Japanese forced them to open doors and modernize the army. Gojong, the last king of Joseon proclaimed the kingdom the Korean Empire to continue to strengthen the military.

History[]

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Early Period[]

The armed forces of the former Goryeo kingdom were Joseon's armed forces during the reign of King Taejo. However, the officials of the Joseon court commanded private armies from the previous kingdom. Yi Bang-won and his officers staged a coup against Taejo and his brother Jeongjong of Joseon, inciting the first and second strife of the princes. He advised Jeongjong to ban the ownership of private armies and become king in favor of having a central army. When Sejong ascended the throne, he created various military regulations to strengthen the safety of his kingdom, supported the advancement of Korean military technology, including the development of the cannon, mortars, fire arrows and the use of gunpowder.^[1]

Joseon–Jurchen border conflicts[]

Like Goryeo, Joseon made the Jurchens in the area around Hamhung on the northeastern Korean peninsula submit as vassals. The Joseon Koreans tried to deal with the military threat posed by the Jurchens by using both forceful means and incentives and by launching military attacks. At the same time, they tried to appease them with titles and degrees, traded with them and sought to acculturate them by having Korean women marry Jurchens and integrating them into Korean culture. Despite these measures, fighting continued between the Jurchen and the Koreans.^[2][3] The Ming Yongle Emperor was determined to wrest the Jurchens out of Korean influence and have China dominate them instead.^[4][5] Korea tried to persuade Jurchen leader Mentemu (Möngke Temür) to reject the Ming overtures, but were unsuccessful since Möngke Temür folded and submitted to the Ming.^[6][7][8][9] In 1433, Sejong sent Kim Jongseo (hangul: 김종서, hanja: 金宗瑞), a prominent general, north to destroy the Jurchens. Kim's military campaign engaged the Jurchen clans such as the Odoli, Maolian and Udige capturing several castles, taking control of Hamgyong and continued pushing north expanding Korean territory to the Songhua River. He then established 4 counties, 6 garrisons, and several border forts in the region to safeguard the people from the Jurchens shaping the modern borders of Korea around 1450.^{[10][11][12][13]}

Oei Invasion[]

In 1419, King Sejong sent Yi Jongmu to raid the Japanese on Tsushima Island in the Oei Invasion as a response to Japanese Wokou raids on Korean coastal cities. Yi took 227 Korean ships and approximately 17,000 soldiers, landed, attacked, and plundered Japanese pirate settlements on Tsushima Island. The So clan, the ruling family of Tsushima, requested negotiations. In the diplomatic exchanges that followed, Korea permitted the So clan to continue trade with Korean coastal harbors under the condition that the clan suppresses the activities of Japanese pirates.

Japanese Invasions of Korea[]

Map of invasions

The Japanese landing at Busan

By the 16th century, the military became weak by the disavowment from Confucian scholars. During the Imjin War, Joseon maintained only a few military units with no field army. Its defense depended heavily on the mobilization of the citizen soldiers in case of emergency.^[14][15] When Japan invaded Korea, Joseon deployed a total of 84,500 regular troops throughout, assisted by 22,000 irregular volunteers such as the righteous army. During the first invasion, the Joseon army was no match for their sheer numbers armed with arquebuses and a combination of arms, and the Japanese pushed them north to Pyeongyang. With the renewed combined efforts of the army, navy, and the Righteous Army, they forced the Japanese back to Pusan. During the 1595–1596 Truce, Seonjo realized how important it was and tried to reform it with the help of Ming generals and established army training centers. He examined the reasons why the Japanese had quickly overrun them. Ryu Seong-ryong, the Prime Minister, spoke out about the Korean disadvantages. He pointed out that Korean castle defenses were feeble, a fact which he had pointed out before the war. He noted how Korean castles had incomplete fortifications and walls that were too easy to scale. He also wanted cannons set up in the walls. Ryu proposed building strong towers with gun turrets for cannons. Besides castles, Ryu wanted to form a line of defenses in Korea. In this kind of defense, the enemy would have to scale many walls to reach Hanseong (Seoul). Ryu also pointed out how efficient the Japanese army was since it took them only one month to get Hanseong and how well organized they were. He noted how the Japanese moved their units in complex maneuvers, often weakening their enemy with the use of arquebuses, then attacking with melee weapons. These reforms helped Joseon Army repel the second invasion of the Japanese army and win the war.

Yi Gwal's Rebellion[]

After the , the dissatisfied Yi Gwal who helped Injo ascend to the throne incited a rebellion against him for trying to arrest his son, Yi Jeon. He led 10,000 of his soldiers to occupy Hanseong and replace him with Heungangun, his royal relative as king. But the Joseon army led by General Jang Man retook the capital and crushed the rebellion. Yi Gwal's Rebellion weakened the military, making them vulnerable to Later Jin's attack.

Manchu-Joseon Conflicts[]

Conservative Westerners took hard-line policy toward the Jurchen-led Later Jin dynasty, keeping their alliance with the Ming dynasty. The Later Jin, who had remained primarily friendly to Joseon, began to regard Joseon as an enemy. , who participated in the rebellion of Yi Gwal, fled to Manchuria and urged the Later Jin ruler Nurhaci to attack Joseon; thus, the friendly relationship between the Later Jin and Joseon ended.

Battle of Sarhū[]

An illustration of Nurhaci's biography depicting the battle of Sarhu (1619)

In 1619, the Joseon Expeditionary Force led Commander Gang Hong-rip to engage Later Jin with the Ming Army at the Battle of Sarhū. But the allied forces lost two-thirds of the Joseon Expeditionary Force. The Jurchen released the captives and allowed them to return to their homeland. Gang Hong-rip, however, was kept for his proficiency in the Jurchen language. Later on, General Gang would be led to believe that his family had died in the political turmoil during a coup in his native kingdom of Joseon. To exact his revenge on the Joseon court, he urged Jin to invade Joseon, which led to the First Manchu invasion of Korea in 1627. Only during the peace negotiations did he find out that he had been misled.

The Joseon musketeers being overwhelmed by the Manchu cavalry prompted a revision of military tactics in Korea. In previous decades, the Imjin War was seen as a demonstration of the dominance of the firearm, and Joseon adjusted military forces accordingly. Both sides of the war lacked effective shock cavalry to take advantage of the vulnerabilities of unsupported musketeers. After the defeat at Sarhū, the Joseon forces revised their doctrine to have spearmen supporting the musketeers.

Later Jin invasion of Joseon[]

In 1627, 30,000 Manchu cavalries under General Amin (阿敏) and former Korean General Gang Hong-rip invaded Joseon, calling for the restoration of Gwanghaegun and execution of Westerners leaders, including Kim Ja-jeom. General again fought against Later Jin but could not repel the invasion. Once again, Injo fled to Ganghwa Island. Meanwhile, Jin had no reason to attack Joseon and decided to go back to prepare for war against the Ming, and peace soon settled. The Later Jin and Joseon dynasties were declared brother nations, and Later Jin withdrew from the Korean peninsula. However, most Westerners kept their hard-line policy despite the war. Nurhaci, who had generally good opinions toward Korea, did not invade Korea again; however, when Nurhaci died and Hong Taiji succeeded him as ruler, Jin again began to seek a chance for another war. King Injo provided refuge to Ming general Mao Wenlong and with his unit after they fled from Later Jin and came to Korea; this action caused Later Jin to invade Korea again.

Qing invasion of Joseon[]

Sueojangdae, the command post of Namhansanseong, the last siege battle of the Qing invasion

In 1636, Hong Taiji officially renamed his dynasty the Qing dynasty and invaded Joseon personally. The Qing forces purposely avoided battle with General Im Gyeong Eop, a prominent Joseon army commander who was guarding the Uiju Fortress at the time. A Qing army of 128,000 men marched directly into Hanseong before Injo could escape to Ganghwa Island, driving Injo to Namhan Mountain Fortress instead. They ran out of food and supplies after the Manchu cut all supply lines during the siege. Injo finally surrendered to the Qing dynasty ceremoniously, bowing to the Hong Taiji nine times as Hong Taiji's servant and agreeing to the , which required Injo to send his first son and second son to China as captives. Joseon then became a tributary state to the Qing dynasty, and the Qing went on to conquer the Central Plain in 1644. Though they lost the wars, their performance left a strong impression on the Manchus. The first emperor of the newly declared Qing dynasty later wrote: "The Koreans are incapable on horseback but do not transgress the principles of the military arts. They excel at infantry fighting."^[16]

Northern Campaigns[]

Russo-Qing border battles. The Joseon Army and Navy aided the Qing at Hutong two times.

Hyojong rose the throne after Injo and Sohyeon's death, he began to reform and expand the military of Korea. First, he removed Kim Ja-jeom, who had corrupted politics and had greater power than the king himself. Then, he called Song Si-yeol (Hangul: 송시열 Hanja:宋時烈) and to his court, who supported the war against the Qing Dynasty. His military expansion was massive, and he also built several border fortresses along Yalu River where Joseon and Qing shared a border. When a band of Dutch sailors, including Hendrick Hamel, drifted on Jeju Island, Hyojong ordered them to build muskets for the army, making it the first time to use firearms since the Imjin War. Hyojong could not implement his plan when his son Hyeonjong stopped him since Joseon had become a tributary state of the Qing Dynasty. The Qing dynasty continued to thrive, expanding quickly into the west after successfully conquering the Ming in 1644. Since the Manchus assimilated the massive Chinese army into their own, they became too mighty to resist. Although reformed and expanded, the Joseon military was no match against the combined Manchu and Chinese forces. Also, the Qing dynasty began to treat Joseon as its friend and closest ally.

The Naseon Jeongbeol (Hangul: 나선정벌 Hanja: 羅禪征伐), or "Suppression of the Russians" or the Northern campaign began when the expanded Joseon military was first put into action in 1654 when the Qing Dynasty called for help to fight against invading Russians. 150 Joseon musketeers, along with 3,000 Manchus, met the Russian army at the Battle of Hutong (Hangul: 호통 Hanja: 好通), present-day Yilan, which the Qing–Joseon allied forces won. In 1658, Hyojong sent troops again to help the Qing dynasty against Russia. He dispatched 260 Joseon musketeers and cannoneers led by Shin Ryu to join the forces of Ninguta's Military Governor Sarhuda. The joint force sailed down the Hurka and Sungari Rivers and met the Russian troops under the command of an Amur Cossack, Onufrij Stepanov near the fall of the Sungari River into the Amur, killing 270 Russians and driving them out of Manchu territory. The battles against Russia proved that Hyojong's reform had stabilized the Joseon army, although they never put them into action again. Despite the campaigns, Russia and Joseon remained on good terms. After Hyojong died, Hyeonjong rose to the throne and continued his father's military expansion and reconstruction of the nation, devastated by the Seven-Year War and two Manchu invasions.

Foreign Incursions in Korea[]

A French landing party engaging the Joseon Army

Korean casualties, after the attack on Fort Sondolmok (Fort McKee) by Felice Beato

The landing of the forces of the Un'yō at Ganghwa Island. Japanese woodblock print.

By the 19th century, royal relatives controlled the royal court through weak kings causing the military to weaken further. Joseon's isolation policies allowed the military to fire on foreign ships. When the USS General Sherman arrived at Ganghwa Island, they requested the government to open for trade, but the army sank their ship and killed their crew. In 1866, the French launched a putative expedition on Ganghwa Island to demand the government release the catholic priests, but were repulsed by the Tiger Hunters. They spearheaded the defense of Ganghwa with the army. The French left during the winter when they received news that the priests had escaped. In 1871, the Americans too launched a putative expedition to demand the government open for trade and apologize for the General Sherman Incident. The Tiger Hunters again spearheaded the defense, but the army and their coastal fortresses were no match for their superior firepower. 20 Koreans were captured as bargaining chips for the Americans but released the prisoners before they left after a diplomatic failure. These small victories and foreign diplomatic defeats made the Joseon Army blind to its inferiority to modern armies. Japan plundered and pillaged Ganghwa Island for firing on their gunboat Un'yō, finally forcing them to open doors to the world.

Modernization[]

This new unit, the Special Skills Force known as Pyŏlgigun, was Korea's first modern military unit.

After opening its ports in 1876, Joseon learned of the world situation. It realized its progress, leading Joseon to promote a progressive movement for 'enlightenment' policies called the Enlightenment Movement (Gaehwaundong). But it took the longest out of all the other modernization projects. In 1880, under King Gojong and his consort Queen Min's joint patronage, they created the Office for Extraordinary State Affairs (Tongnigimu-Amun), consisting of 12 departments charged with diplomacy, trade, finance, and military affairs. In 1881, Gojong and Min spearheaded the military modernization efforts. Joseon dispatched the so-called Gentlemen's Sightseeing Group to Japan or Courtiers' Observation Mission (Sinsayuramdan). They invited the Japanese Army attaché Lieutenant Horimoto Reizō to serve as an adviser in creating a modern army.^[17] The Japanese gave military training to eighty to one hundred young men of the aristocracy, establishing the Special Skills Force (Pyŏlgigun, Korean: 별기군).^[18] They also sent a royally appointed advisor (Yeongseonsa) and students to Tianjin to learn about the manufacture of firearms and munitions. In January 1882, the government reorganized the Five Military Camps (ogunyeong) into the Palace Guards Garrison (Muwiyŏng, Korean: 무위영) and the Capital Guards Garrison (Changŏyŏng, Korean: 창어영).^[18] However, these units were resentful towards the Special Skills Force for better treatment and equipment. Additionally, the army discharged more than 1,000 soldiers in overhauling the military; most were old or disabled. The army did not pay them in rice for thirteen months leading up to the Imo Incident which claimed the lives of some Japanese military advisors and their legislation and some Joseon officials. Daewongun returned to power momentarily to restore order. Daewongun dismantled the Muwiyŏng, the Changŏyŏng, and the Pyŏlgigun and revived the Five-army garrison.^[19][20] In December 1882 after Daewongun's arrest, the Chinese lines under Yuan Shikai established and trained a new Korean military formation, the Capital Guards Command (Chingunyeong, Korean: 친군영) until they disbanded in 1888.^[21][22]

Modernized Joseon Army procession with King Gojong in the background

Gojong and Min requested the United States for more American military instructors to speed up the military modernization of Korea. In October 1883, American minister Lucius Foote arrived to take command of the modernization of Joseon's older army units that had not started Westernizing. They established their first military factories and a modern armory (Gigichang) and created new military uniforms in 1884.^[17] In April 1888, General William McEntyre Dye and two other military instructors arrived from the United States, followed in May by a fourth instructor. They brought about rapid military development. They established a new military school called Yeonmu Gongwon, and an officers training program to begin making the armies become more and more on par with the Chinese and the Japanese. After the UK occupied Port Hamilton (Geomun Island) in 1889, the Joseon government took a more effective national defense.^[17]

Korean soldiers and Chinese prisoners

In January 1894, the modernized army was deployed against the Donghak Peasant Revolution but lost many battles in the beginning due to their sheer numbers and their innovative tactics. When Gojong requested help from the Qing to suppress the rebels, the Japanese sent troops to Seoul, demanding the Joseon Government to send the Qing back. The government refused, and Japan stormed Gyeongbokgung. Despite resistance from the modernized royal guards, Japan occupied the palace and replaced them with a pro-Japanese government and began the Gabo Reform and the Sino-Japanese War.^[23] Japan allied with the Joseon Army and finally suppressed the Donghak rebels in December 1895. The Japanese forced the Qing out of Joseon after winning the war. During the reform, the government under the direction of the Japanese established the Hullyeondae or the "Military Training Division." They are an elite regiment of royal guards trained and equipped by the Japanese and led old Korean Army members who hold pro-Japanese sentiments. Gojong of Korea established the Siwidae as his royal escort guards. The minister of the military supervises the training of the Siwidae.^[24] The Japanese convinced the officers of the Hullyeondae that the royal family was seeking help from the Russians and plotted to assassinate Queen Min. One thousand Hullyeondae troops stormed the palace and battled the royal guards to allow the ronin to assassinate her. As a result, Gojong ordered the deaths of pro-Japanese officials ending the Gabo Reform.^[25][26][27] After her death, Gojong disbanded the Siwidae in August 1895 for refusing to stop the Japanese from assassinating Queen Min.^[24] He established the Jinwidae, a modernized royal guard trained by Russian military advisors, and fully modernized the Joseon Army. In 1897, he proclaimed Joseon the Korean Empire dedicating to modernizing the country and the army.

Organization[]

Numbers and information of the Joseon Armed Forces

The Joseon Army comprises foot soldiers, archers, musketeers, artillery, cavalry, and elite soldiers, the Pengbaesu and Gabsa. The Pengbaesu are shield-bearing foot soldiers. The Gabsa was the highest caliber of soldiers who served as elite foot soldiers and cavalry (or mounted infantry). A high-ranking officer leads Joseon troops. A mid-ranking officer with two low-ranking officers beside him leads a battle formation consisting of Pengbaesu in the front, gunners following them, spearmen behind them, and archers in the rear. The Gapsa protects the formation on the left and right flanks on foot or horses. Their officers in the Joseon army came exclusively from the yangban, and the king appointed them. Still, they valued scholarship over war as something unworthy of a Confucian gentleman-scholar.^[28] The quality of Korean generals varies. Some Korean officers being able and others being men who had not devoted much time to the study of war, preferring archery, writing, practicing their calligraphy, and reading Confucian classics.^[29]

Border Defense Council of Joseon[]

The Border Defense Council of Joseon was a supreme administrative organ established by the central government after the Disturbance of the Three Ports. It allowed the higher military officers, the Jibyeonsa Jaesang (in Hangul: 지변사재상, in Hanja: 知邊司宰相) to participate in the process of establishing security maneuvers to meticulously keep a keen eye on the issues of the border.

Royal Guard[]

The Naegeumwi, Gyeomsabok, Woorimwi, and Jungrowi was the royal guard units defending the Geumjung (禁裏) (or Geumjung (禁中)), the king's residence. They number up to 50-200 men tasked with guarding the palace and escorting the king. In 1666, King Hyeongjong established the Restriction Guard (Geumgun) by integrating these three units into the Office of the Restriction Guards (Geumguncheong). In 1623, the Restriction Guard divided itself further into the Howechung. In 1755, King Yeongjo renamed the Restriction Guard into the Dragon Guard (Yonghoyeong);^[30] its total number of members increased to 700. In 1793, King Jeongjo established the Jangyongyoung. It also served as the elite unit of the central army as Joseon Kings assigned a number of units to serve on the field.^[31][32][33]

In 1469, King Yejong established the King's Royal Palace Gatekeepers, the Wanggung Sumunjang (왕궁수문장) were a royal guard unit tasked with defending the gates of the five palaces and Hanseong's city gates. King Yeongjo established the Sumunjangcheong (守門將廳) to manage them.^[34]

Central Army[]

King Taejo established the central army (Gyeonggun) in 1392 with his army that overthrew the Goryeo dynasty serving as its basis. In 1393, he established the Three Armies Headquarters (Ŭihŭng Samgunbu). It was the primary military force in the early Joseon Dynasty and had about 16,000 men at first, but in 1448 it was increased to about 28,000 men. About 2,000 gapsa constituted the core force among them. The Chakhogapsa was a special force of Gapsa organized under royal order by Joseon's kings to hunt tigers and leopards wherever a province was under constant threat from them. They also maintained order in the capital and defended the Gyeonggi province.^[35] The headquarters was renamed the Five Commands (Owi) by King Sejo, making it the basis of the central army. The Owi consists of five divisions with four brigades each. They are administered by the Five Commands General Headquarters (Owido), recruiting people from all provinces and the capital. After the Imjin War, King Seonjo reduced the duties of the Chakhogapsa. He replaced the Five Commands for its ineffectiveness with the Five Military Camps (ogunyeong, Hangul: 오군영, hanja: 五軍營) and Kings Injo, and Sukjeong added four more camps to defend the capital and the Gyeonggi Province.^[35][36] Adding to the central army was the Escort Office (Howicheong) and the Special Military Direct Office (Byeolgunjigcheong).^[31]

Five Military Camps[]

The Five Military Camps (ogunyeong) defended Hanseong and the surrounding fortresses primarily in Gyeonggi Province. Each king established one or more garrisons during their reign. ^[36] The ogunyeong started in September 1593 as a single military camp, when King Seonjo and Ryu Seong-Ryong established the Military Training Command (Hunlyeondogam, Hangul: 훈련도감, alternately translated as Military Training Command). The agency carefully divided the army into units and companies. There were squads of archers, arquebusiers, swordsmen, and spear infantry within the companies. The agency set up army divisions in each region of Korea and garrisoned battalions at castles. The upper-class citizens and enslaved people were subject to the draft. All males had to enter military service to be trained and familiarized with weapons. It was also around this time that the military scholar (한교) wrote the martial arts manual Muyejebo, based on the book Jixiao Xinshu by the famous Chinese General Qi Jiguang. The agency initially had less than 80 troops soon grew to about 10,000.^[37] In 1622-1624, Injo established three more camps to counter the Qing invasions after Yi Gwal's rebellion, the Royal Guards Command (Eoyeongcheong), Command of the Northern Approaches (Chongyungcheong), and the Royal Defense Command (Sueocheong). The Royal Guards Command had 260 artillery troops to defend the city walls of Hanseong and suppress rebellions. It grew to 7,000 troops after the Qing invasion, and during Hyojong's reign, 21,000 troops. The Command of the Northern Approaches defended the northern outskirts of Hanseong through the Bukhansanseong Fortress with 23,500 soldiers. The Royal Defense Command defended to defend south of Hanseong through Namhanseong Fortress with 16,500 troops. Sukjeong established the Capital Garrison (Geumwiyeong) to defend Hanyang and escort the king with 85,000 soldiers. Among them are 30,000 professional soldiers based on the military elements from the other four military camps. It was reassigned as an independent army by King Yeongjo.^{[38][39][40][41]} In 1704, King Sukjong assigned the Military Training Agency, the Royal Guards Command, and the Capital Garrison to serve as the Three Military Garrisons (Hangul: 삼군영). Their duty was to guard the Three Military Gates (Samgunmun, Hangul: 삼군문 hanja: 三軍門) to strengthen Hanseong's defenses and escort the king. In 1745, after Prince , King Yeongjo realized the confusion of duties between these camps. He reorganized the gates in greater detail by dividing the responsibilities of the military camps to maintain order in the capital.

National Defense Systems[]

The Joseon Government established various defense systems to establish provincial armies and raise militias. The provincial armies defended Eight Provinces of Korea as five provincial guards, the right guard in P'yŏngan, the rearguard in Hamgyŏng, the center guard in Hwanghae, Gangwon, Gyeonggi, and Chungcheong, the forward guard in Jeolla, and the left guard in Gyeongsang. The provincial armies and militias were mostly poor commoners and enslaved people pressed into service through corvée. Their training was poor, and many literati and officials tried to reform it numerous times through these systems.^[42]

Jingwan System[]

The Jingwan System was a provincial defense system that dates back to the Goryeo Dynasty, building fortresses in strategically important places. Still, it leaves some parts of the nations open to invasion, and if one falls, it will be catastrophic in any war. In 1457 A.D, King Sejo reshuffled the defense system to secure as many defensive fortresses as possible to enhance the defensive depth. It comprises a Jujin, the main fortress commanded by a Byeongsa, a provincial military commander who takes a regional defense and orders lower unit commanders. A Geojin, medium-size local administrative units commanded by a Byeongmajeoljesa or Cheomjeoljesa (Geojin Military Commander) between the provincial capital and small local towns called Jejins, who are commanded by chief local magistrates or a military commander. Using this strategic composition, a Jingwan fights and defend their provinces, and every province has several independent Jingwans. Under this system, the roles of local commanders were to be stationed at their post, know the local topography inside and out, draft the operation plan, train local soldiers, and defend their defensive quarter through mobilizing their local soldiers in the case of conflict. However, when there's a massive invasion, there are not enough soldiers to defend their provinces as it was also a dispersed-force defense system. It requires the concentrated use of forced local forces to defend their defense perimeters, and the Bupiljeoktajinjijobeob rule prevents provinces from coming for each other's aid. They requested military commanders from the central government for support who did not know a familiar province's terrain.^[42]

Jeseungbangryak System[]

Joseon army mobilizes its troops through the Jeseungbangryak system. It allowed the military commanders from the central government to control assembled troops from the main army to the local and provincial armies. But, local officers could not individually respond to a foreign invasion outside their jurisdiction until a higher ranking general, appointed by the king's court, arrived with a newly mobilized army.^[42][43] It was a highly inefficient arrangement since the nearby forces would remain stationary until the mobile border commander arrived on the scene and took control.^[43] Secondly, as the appointed General often came from an outside region. The general was unlikely unfamiliar with the natural environment, the available technology, and staffing of the invaded region.^[43] Finally, as the government never maintained the main army, new and ill-trained recruits conscripted during war constituted a significant part of the army.^[43]

Sogo System[]

Seonjo established the Sogo System in 1593, a militia system during the Imjin war based on the Ming Chinese militia system and military texts. He believed a communal nature of the defense forces would prevent the populace from deserting and allow the country to respond more quickly to invasions. Under this system, county magistrates or army commanders organized all families of the Joseon Society from villages and counties into militia armies with hierarchical command structures. They have access to the resources for maintaining and rewarding the soldiers. Five households each contributed a man to form the basic unit, an o. The o’s in a village or town were progressively amalgamated and arranged into eleven-man squads (tae) including a squad leader (taech’ong), three-squad banners (ki), three-banner companies (ch’o), and five-company battalions (sa), five battalions constituted a regiment (yŏng) of approximately 2,475 men. The Sogo Armies performed disastrously during the Manchu Invasions due to the county magistrates' poor management and outright corruption, who packed them with the old, weak, and infirm soldiers. During Heonjong's reign, he reduced them to a corvée labor force, and their garrison commanders operated in the realms of public safety and pacification as thief-catching and tiger killing.^[44]

Garrison Command System[]

After the Manchu invasion of Korea, Injo established the Garrison Command System (Yŏngjang chedo) to take over the training and military preparation of Joseon after the failure of the Jingwan system and the Sogo armies, it separates the military administration from the civil interference of the provincial magistrates. Because most regions lacked enough population base to maintain more than three, the system replaced recruitment with universal conscription, which like the Sogo system, requires all citizens of Joseon to enlist. By Yeongjo 's reign, the system had grown to forty-nine garrisons, with nine in Pyeongan and six in Hamgyŏng Provinces. The other provinces had at least five, except for Kangwŏn, which could still only maintain three. ^[36] Garrison commanders (yŏngjang) primary duty was to administer the provincial military structure and command garrisons. They also served a concurrent role of sheriffs (t'op'osa), shifting from military defense to catching criminals and suppressing local unrest. Magistrates were frequently appointed as garrison commanders, only nominally separating their duties. However, military men could be appointed separately to a garrison command in the southern regions without posting concurrent magistrate (paech'i). Nonetheless, the garrison commanders throughout the peninsula were increasingly responsible for civil policing activities at the expense of their military duties.^[44]

Modern Armies[]

The Joseon Army, as it existed in the early 1890s, consisted of about 3,000–50,000 soldiers at the time of the Donghak Peasant Revolution. There were about 5,000 soldiers in 1895. Training by Russian officers beginning in 1896 led to the organization of a 1,000-strong royal bodyguard armed with Berdan rifles that served as the core of an improved army. Soldiers sometimes transferred to other units from this core unit, including five regiments of about 900 soldiers each. When the Joseon Dynasty became the Korean Empire, their numbers grew to 28,000 before 1907.^[45]

Equipment[]

Uniforms[]

Jeonnip (전립), or called beonggeoji (벙거지), a Korean hat worn by military personnel during the Joseon period

Soldiers and military officials wear military uniforms (kunbok, Hangul: 군복, hanja: (軍服)). The peasant soldiers wore black and military robes (hyeopsu Hangul: 협수, hanja: 夾袖) with light blue long sleeveless vests (jeonbok, Hangul: 전복, hanja: 戰服) representing the central army and red ones representing provincial armies. Commissioned officers (usually military yangban) wore a red and yellow (or organge) military officials coat (dongdari, Hangul: 동다리, hanja: 同多里) for middle to high-ranking officers and red and blue dongdari for junior-ranking officers with a black jeonbok and a military belt (jeondae, Hangul: 전대, hanja: 戰帶).^[46] During emergencies and wartime, officers, Pengbaesu, and Gabsa wore war clothing (yungbok, Hangul: 융복, hanja: 戎服) distinguishing rank by color.^[47] Red yungbok with a blue military belt represents high-ranking officers. Blue yungbok with a red military belt represents mid-ranking officers. Black yungbok with a black military belt represents junior ranking officers and elite soldiers and cavalry. High and middle-ranking officers wore hats called jeonrip. Soldiers of all ranks and low-ranking officers wore hats called beonggeoji.^[48]

In the 1880s, these uniforms phased out for a new Joseon military uniform, the gyoryeonbyeonbok (Hangul: 교련병복, hanja: 敎鍊兵服). The Pyŏlgigun, the Muwiyŏng, the Changŏyŏng, and the Chingunyeong (Hangul: 친군영) wore an upper garment of the hanbok jeogori with a square-shaped neck collar from the bangryeong jacket, five metal buttons, and sleeve collars that denote a rank. One collar for a private, and two for an officer. They also wore an inner jacket (naegapui, Hangul: 내갑의, hanja: 內甲衣) underneath their uniforms for added protection. They wore a belt at chest or waist length and a jeonrip that resembles a heungnip or a bowler hat with red belts strapped around it that denote a soldier's names and units, and a peacock feather for officers.^[49][50] During the Donghak Peasant Revolution and the Sino-Japanese War, the Chingunyeong wore navy-blue western overcoats with white ankle-length baggy pants baji.^[51] After the Gabo Reform, the rest of the army wore black western overcoats and pants.^[52] In 1895, the army began adopting and standardizing western uniforms with pith helmets during the Gwangmu Reform.

Armor[]

In the early dynasty, the army wore chain mail (swaejagab, Hangul: 쇄자갑, hanja: 鎖子甲) and plate and mail armor (gyeongbeongap, Hangul: 경번갑, hanja: 鏡幡甲) from the late Goryeo dynasty. The peasant conscripts wore helmets but no armor. However, the Joseon military policy required peasant conscripts to provide their armor. Chain mail, paper armor (jigap, Hangul: 지갑, hanja: 紙甲), and padded armor made from cotton layers, iron plats, and (or) leather (eomshimgap, Hangul: 엄심갑, hanja: 掩心甲) were popular among peasant soldiers as they offered body protection at lower prices. Sets of leather armor worn by peasant soldiers are called Pigabju (Hangul: 피갑주, hanja: 皮甲胄). The Pengbaesu wore chain mail and plate armor. Still, they along with the Gabsa wore a traditional form of Korean armor that persisted with the Mongols' influences during the 13~14th centuries, lamellar armor (jalgap, Hangul: 찰갑, hanja: 札甲). It was a complete metallic armor set. It was composed of a helmet resembling European kettle hats with attached neck defenses of mail or lamellar, a body armor reaching down to the thighs or knees, and a set of shoulder guards that protected the upper arm as well.

In the late dynasty, the dujeonggap (Hangul: 두정갑, hanja: 頭釘甲) is the Korean equivalent of brigandine. The Pengbaesu, Gabsa, and peasant conscripts all wore brigandine made from cotton layers, and the plates weaved into the brigandine are either iron, copper, or leather. It became the primary form of Korean armor and often reached below the knees when worn. The helmet assumes a conical shape and has three brigandine flaps that protect the sides and back of the head. The elite soldiers and the cavalry wore iron or copper, while peasant soldiers wore leather.^[53]

In 1867, there was an attempt to develop anti-ballistic armor called Myeonje baegab, made from 13 to 30 sewed sheets of textiles and cotton combined into a thick vest to the overwhelming firepower of rifles fielded by Western powers such as France and the United States. Although this attempt was partially in line with the current method of producing anti-ballistic vests, it does not appear to have proved effective. In the late 1870s, Korean armor completely phased out.

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  Sets of leather armor, Pigabju, worn by the peasant soldiers.

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  Swaejagab, chain mail from the Joseon Dynasty worn by peasant conscripts

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  Jalgap, the lamellar armor of Joseon worn by the Pengbaesu, and the Gabsa

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  Korean mail and plate armor worn by the Pengbaesu

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  armor and helmet. Joseon period, 19th century. Musée Guimet.

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  Joseon dynasty Dujeong-gap

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  Modern reenactors wearing a complete Dujeong-gap set. While conventionally shown as red, the fabric could be of various colors.

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  Brass scale armor worn by military officers

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  Front of the Myeonje baegab

Melee Weapons[]

The standard Korean sword was the hwando, a short and light curved sword commonly used by Joseon soldiers during peacetime. The standard Korean spear was the dangpa, a 7–8 ft three-pronged trident with a spear tip in the middle used for close defensive combat to trap an enemy's sword between two of the three prongs.^[54] Another polearm used in the army was the jangchang (Hangul: 장창, hanja: 長槍), a four-meter spear wielded by infantry, and cavalry, for thrusting and drawing while moving forward and backward. But due to its long lengthen, they cannot use this spear for throwing. The woldo was a 9 ft curved-bladed polearm with a spike at the end of the handle and a tassel or feather attached to the blade. The woldo was mostly used by cavalry for its heavy striking power while on horseback. The infantry but mostly cavalry used the pyeongon, a 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in)-long flail made from hardwood stick, painted red, acting as the handle for a chain attached to a shaft with iron nails.^[29] The Pengbaesu carry a pengbae (Hangul: 펭배, hanja: 彭排), a round shield, or a deungpaea (Hangul: 등패, hanja: 藤牌), a rattan shield along with a sword.^[55]

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  Hwando, standard sword of Joseon military

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  Dangpa, standard polearm of the Joseon Military

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  Woldo, a polearm wielded by mostly the cavalry

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  Pyeongon, a two-section staff flail wielded by mostly the cavalry

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  Jangchang, a long spear wielded by both infantry and cavalry

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  Deungpae, a rattan shield

Projectile Weapons[]

Archery[]

Gakgung, the standard bow for the Joseon Army

Joseon foot soldiers and cavalry often fought as archers with their bows which had a range of 450 metres (1,480 ft).^[29] Archers also used the pyeonjeon, a short arrow, and the tongah to help guide it as part of the standard kit of Chosun era archers. They can fire at an extended range of 350 meters and flatter trajectories with a faster velocity and penetrating power than regular arrows.^[56] Their quivers held 20 arrows and 10 pyeonjeon arrows.^[57]

Gunpowder[]

Hwacha launch pad, ignitors placed in the narrow section of each arrow to fire.

In 1395, several weapons were in use: a series of cannons called the daejanggunpo, ijanggunpo, and samjanggunpo, a shell-firing mortar called the jillyeopo, series of yuhwa, juhwa, and chokcheonhwa rockets, which were the forerunners of the singijeon, and a signal gun called the shinpo.^[58] These cannons improved during Taejong's rule. Among the people responsible for the developments was Choe Hae-san, son of Choe Mu-seon. The cheon "heaven" or "sky," Ji "earth," Hyeon "black," and Hwang "yellow" or "gold" names are not significant, being the first four characters of the Thousand Character Classic.^[59] His son, Sejong, also made many improvements and increased the ranges of these cannons (called hwapo and later hwatong "fire tube" and chongtong "gun tube").^[60] The seungja "victory gun," was a chongtong that serves as a standard Korean gun. It was a handheld shotgun-like cannon attached to a staff or a gunstock that fires a large arrow, a bullet, and 15 small pellets.^[61] In the early 1500s, the bullanggi (불랑기/佛狼機), a breech-loading swivel gun, was introduced to Korea from Portugal via China. It was divided into sizes 1 through 5, in decreasing size. The small but powerful cannons of this era saw extensive use during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98) by both the Joseon Army and the navy. Mortars used at this time were the chongtong-wan'gue, byeoldae-wan'gu, dae-wan'gu, jung-wan'gu, and so-wan'gu. These fired stones or the bigeukjincheonre a timed explosive shell. They were very effective against the weaker-built Japanese ships. But during the war, the Koreans seldom employed field artillery, mainly using the cannon in siege action and defending castles. There were only very few instances of Koreans employing artillery in the field, with largely ineffective results.^[62] Some irregular Korean units with government-supplied weapons fired explosive shells from mortars, but this occurred only in isolated instances.^[62] The Nanjung ilgi says that many captured and used by the Japanese realized their full potential. In 1596, the seungja were phased out in favor of Japanese-style muskets and arquebuses. The Koreans called these jochong (조총/鳥銃). The Hong'ipo (Korean: 홍이포; Hanja: 紅夷砲) was a cannon introduced from the Netherlands by Hendrick Hamel and others in the 1650s. Joseon also used this cannon during the 1866 French campaign against Korea, the 1871 United States expedition to Korea and the Ganghwa Island incident of September 20, 1875.

The Koreans use the hwacha – multiple rocket-propelled arrows. The hwacha consisted of a two-wheeled cart carrying a board filled with holes into which the singijeon were inserted. It could fire up to 200 singijeon, a type of rocket arrow, all at one time. The hwacha also has a variant called the munjong hwacha, it can fire 100 rocket arrows or 200 small Chongtong bullets at one time with changeable modules. Another variant was the mangam hwacha. A boxed cart with large faces of a dokkaebi painted on all three sides. Armed with forty seungja-chongtongs with fourteen in the front and thirteen on the left and right sides, only two soldiers can manage it, one firing the rows and the other reloads. They can fire 600 bullets, with each barrel holding 15 shots each.^[63] The hwacha mainly was deployed during the Siege of Pyongyang in January 1593 and the Battle of Haengju in March 1593.

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  Three large chongtong at the Jinju Fortress museum. The closest is a cheonja-chongtong, the second is a jija-chongtong, and the third is a hyeonja-chongtong.

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  A hong'ipo cannon introduced from the Netherlands by Hendrick Hamel and others in the 1650s

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  Large mortar with stone round

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  Breech-loading swivel gun

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  This Cheonja-chongtong is the largest size.

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  Jijachongtong, the second largest cannon in Mid Joseon Dynasty.

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  This Hyeonja-chongtong is a middle-sized cannon.

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  Byeolhwangja-chongtong, which was one of the more miniature cannons

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  Seungja-chongtong, a hand cannon

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  Sipyeonjapo, the ten-barreled musket

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  Oyeonjapo, the five-barreled musket

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  The Koreans called these muskets acquired from the Japanese jochong (조총/鳥銃).

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  Plans for Hwacha assembly and disassembly. Left mid and below are front and rear of Singijeon rocket launcher modules, things at right are front and rear of Munjong organ gun modules (Gukjo-orye-seorye, 1474).

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  Mangam Hwacha firing its gun barrels at the Jangseong Army Artillery School demonstration.

Modern Weapons[]

The Joseon dynasty attempted to reverse-engineer European firearms to counter their rising threat in the 19th century. When the Americans captured Ganghwa Island's coastal fortresses, the Joseon Army first used these modern weapons to reinforce the island.^[64] After signing the Treaty of Ganghwa, Japan, Qing, the United States, and the European nations started importing modern weapons such as rifles, artillery, machine guns, western sabers, and bayonets in 1883 until its annexation in 1910.^[65] From 1887, Gojong even tried to make weapons by themselves which however never succeed.^[66]

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  Martini-Henry m1871. Acquired from Great Britain in (1881-1884)

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  Snyder Enfield rifle. Acquired from Great Britain in (1881-1884)

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  Remington Rolling Block rifle. Acquired from the United States in (1884-1895)

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  Fusil Gras M80 1874. Acquired from France.

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  Mauser Model 1871. Acquired from the German Empire in (1893~). It was the standard-issued rifle of the modern Joseon Army.

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  Berdan rifle. Acquired from the Russian Empire in (1896~). The royal guard used them, but they were not often the Mauser Model 1871.

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  Gatling Gun. Used during the Donghak Peasant Revolution. Acquired from the United States (1883~).

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  Armstrong 12 Pounder Field Gun. Acquired from Great Britain (1880s)

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  Krupp 75mm mountain gun. Acquired from the German Empire in (Unknown).

Strategy and Tactics[]

Joseon's longtime foe, the Jurchens, adopted cavalry mobile warfare and made numerous raids on Joseon's Northern Borders. The Joseon army focused on developing anti-cavalry tactics to counter them. Their main battle tactic is to arm their infantry and cavalry with long-range weaponry to weaken their cavalry charge from a distance and then engage them quickly and fluently. But in an actual combat situation, the cavalry charges into the enemy's spearhead formation and the battle formation.^[42]

During the Imjin War, when the army formed their battle positions like the Joseon cavalry formations against the Jurchens, they were withered down by a hail of Japanese arquebuses. Then, the Japanese ashigaru engaged in close-quarters combat. But what the Koreans lack in numbers can make up for it in topography and geography. The Righteous Army utilized stalling tactics to hamper Japanese supply chains on land, but the central army could not use them until the second half of the Imjin war.^[42]

See also[]

• Joseon Navy
• Joseon Dynasty
• Righteous Army
• Korean–Jurchen border conflicts
• Imjin War
• List of battles during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598)

References[]