Kösem Sultan

Kösem Sultan
Contemporary portrait by an unknown painter, c. 1612-1618
Valide Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
Tenure	10 September 1623 – 2 September 1651
Predecessor	Halime Sultan
Successor	Turhan Sultan
Haseki Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (Imperial Consort)
Tenure	26 November 1605 – 22 November 1617
Predecessor	Safiye Sultan
Successor	Ayşe Sultan
Regent of the Ottoman Empire
1st Tenure	10 September 1623 - 18 May 1632
2nd Tenure	9 February 1640 – 8 August 1648
3rd Tenure	8 August 1648 - 2 September 1651
Born	c. 1589[1] Tinos, Republic of Venice or Bosnia
Died	2 September 1651(1651-09-02) (aged 61–62) Constantinople, Ottoman Empire
Burial	Sultan Ahmed Mosque, Istanbul
Spouse	Sultan Ahmed I
Issue more...	Sultan Murad IV Sultan Ibrahim Gevherhan Sultan Ayşe Sultan Fatma Sultan Hanzade Sultan
Names Turkish: Kösem Sultan Ottoman Turkish: كوسم سلطان‎
Religion	Sunni Islam (raised Greek Orthodox)

Kösem Sultan (Ottoman Turkish: قسم سلطان‎, IPA: [cœˈsæm suɫˈtan]) (c. 1589^[1] – 2 September 1651^[2]) – also known as Mahpeyker Sultan^[3][4] (Turkish pronunciation: [mahpejˈkæɾ suɫˈtan]; from the Persian compound ماه پيكر Māh-peyker – was an Ottoman sultana and regent who effectively ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1623 to 1632, and then later from 1640 until her assassination in 1651. She became one of the most powerful and influential women in Ottoman history as well as a prominent figure during the era known as the Sultanate of Women.^[5]

Kösem achieved power and influenced the politics of the Ottoman Empire when she became haseki sultan as favourite consort of Ottoman Sultan Ahmed I (r. 1603–1617) and valide sultan^[3] as mother of Murad IV (r. 1623–1640) and Ibrahim (r. 1640–1648), and grandmother of Mehmed IV (r. 1648–1687).

Kösem lived in the Ottoman Empire as a courtier during the reign of six sultans: Ahmed I, Mustafa I, Osman II, Murad IV, Ibrahim, and Mehmed IV. After her death, she was known by the names "Valide-i Muazzama" (magnificent mother), "Vālide-i Maḳtūle" (murdered mother), and "Vālide-i Şehīde" (martyred mother).^[6]

Early life[]

Kösem is generally said to be of Greek origin,^[7] the daughter of a priest on the island of Tinos whose maiden name was Anastasia,^[8][9][10] but these views do not seem reliable.^[1] At the age of 15, she was kidnapped and bought as a slave by the Bosnian Beylerbey, and sent to the harem of Sultan Ahmed I. Upon her conversion to Islam, her name was changed to Mahpeyker ,^[11] and later by Sultan Ahmed I to Kösem,^[12] meaning "leader of the herd", indicating Kösem's leadership and political intelligence.

Haseki Sultan, the Imperial Consort[]

Kösem rose to prominence early in Ahmed's reign as part of a series of changes to the hierarchy of the imperial harem. Safiye Sultan, Ahmed's once-powerful grandmother and manager of the harem, was deprived of power and banished to the Old Palace (Eski Saray) in January 1604, and Handan Sultan, Ahmed's mother and valide sultan, died in November of the following year. These two vacancies allowed Kösem to rise to the top of the imperial harem hierarchy from her previous position as the Sultan's second or third concubine.^[4]

When Kösem arrived at the palace, her beauty drew Ahmed I's attention, and she became his leading haseki. As a Haseki Sultan to Ahmed I, Kösem was considered his favorite consort and gave birth to many of his children.^[4] During her time as haseki sultan she received 1,000 aspers a day.^[13] As the mother to a number of princesses she had the right to arrange their marriages which were of political use.^[4] Venetian ambassador Simon Contarini mentions Kösem in his report in 1612 and portrays her as:

"[A woman] of beauty and shrewdness, and furthermore ... of many talents, she sings excellently, whence she continues to be extremely well loved by the king ... Not that she is respected by all, but she is listened to in some matters and is the favorite of the king, who wants her beside him continually."^[4]

Contarini reported in 1612 that the Sultan ordered a woman to be beaten for having irritated Kösem. She may have been Kösem's fellow consort Mahfiruz, mother of Ahmed's eldest son Osman.^[14] Kösem also made efforts to keep her brother-in-law Mustafa safe from execution, and may have regarded Mahfiruz as a rival intent on lobbying in favor of her own son.^[14] After Mahfiruz's apparent expulsion from the palace, probably in the mid-1610s, Kösem and Osman grew fond of each other. She used to let him join her in carriage rides where he showed himself to the crowd, but once this came to Ahmed's attention he forbade any conversation between them.^[15] Eventually Ahmed interfered with this relationship between Osman and Kösem: the Venetian ambassador Bertuccio Valier reported in 1616 that the sultan did not allow the two eldest princes (Osman and Mehmed) to converse with Kösem. His motive perhaps, as Valier speculated, was fear that the princes' security was threatened by Kösem's well-known ambitions for her own sons.^[14]

Kösem's influence over the Sultan increased in the following years and it is said that she acted as one of his advisers.^[4] However, she refrained from involving herself constantly in serious issues as the Sultan refused to be overshadowed by his wife.^[4] Kösem is sometimes accused of trying to save her own position and influence throughout her long career "rather than that of the sultan or of the dynasty".^[16] According to Cristoforo Valier in 1616:

“Her circumspection was presumably intended at averting the sultan's displeasure, who was keen to avoid seeming ruled by a woman, as his father had been. She can do what she wishes with the King and possesses his heart absolutely, nor is anything ever denied to her."

Contarini noted, however, that Kösem "restrains herself with great wisdom from speaking [to the sultan] too frequently of serious matters and affairs of state.”^[4]

Kösem also had a long career as a guardian of şehzades. It is possible that the significant modifications in the pattern of succession to the throne during Ahmed's time owed something to her efforts. She must have realized the personal gain that might stem from the transition to seniority coupled with the fact that she was no longer haseki but had a son "in waiting". According to the Venetian ambassador, Simon Contarini, Kösem "lobbied to spare Mustafa the fate of fratricide with the ulterior goal of saving her own son from the same fate."^[17]

Death of Ahmed I[]

Sultan Ahmed I died on 22 November 1617, when he was 27 years old. His corpse was laid to rest close in Sultan Ahmed Mosque, Istanbul. With the Ahmed I's death at such a young age. Kösem lamented the death of Ahmed I, whom she loved and admired. Her husband's death may have completely altered her personality. According to some historians, Ahmed I's death may have turned Kösem into a tyrant. The next day, the question of who would take his place on the throne arose. Şehzade Musafa and Şehzade Osman were the most popular choices. When a Sultan died, however, one of his sons was supposed to take the throne, according to the pedestals. Finally, state officials decided it was time to hand it on to Şehzade Mustafa of the, who was older and had the best claim to the Ottoman throne.^[18] During Ahmed I's reign, he adopted the laws of succession to the throne, which he followed. Osman, Ahmed I's eldest son, was well-educated and well-behaved. In addition, Darüsaade Agha told the government that Mustafa was mentally imbalanced.

Retirement at the Old Palace[]

Kösem retired in the Old Palace during the reign of her brother-in-law Mustafa I and step-son Osman II.^[18]

Due to the emergence of seniority as the principle of succession, which meant that a prince's mother might mark time in the Old Palace between the death of her master and the accession of her son, Kösem was able to maintain her Haseki status and daily stipend of 1,000 aspers during her retirement there;^[19] still, after the end of Kösem's tenure as haseki, the position lost its prominence.^[16]

Mustafa I's 1st reign[]

Initially, Mustafa refused to reign as Sultan, claiming that he was uninterested in state concerns, the Statesman ignored the matter. In actuality, he was overthrown on 26 February 1618, just 96 days after ascending to the throne, and was replaced by Şehzade Osman, the son of Ahmed I and Mahfiruz Hatice Sultan.^[18]

Even though Osman was only a child, he felt uneasy with Kösem's involvement in state issues. He did not, however, ignore Kösem Sultan, who grew up with her and always admired her.^[18][20]

Osman II's reign[]

Osman II being strangled to death engraving, c. 17th century

In 1619, Osman II paid Kösem a three-day visit at the Old Palace, thus manifesting his special fondness for her. Even if their relation was cultivated, though, it did not yield consequential results for the young sultan, whose most exceptional weakness was the lack of a valide sultan to lobby in his favour.^[15]

Osman, ambitious and brave, launched a military war against Poland, which had interfered in Ottoman vassal principalities Moldavia and Walachia. Recognizing that his failure at Chocim in 1621 was partly due to the Janissary corps' lack of discipline and degeneracy, he punished them by lowering their pay and closing their coffee shops.^[20]

Then he claimed his intention to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca, but his true goal was to form a new army in Egypt and Syria to depose the Janissaries. When the Janissaries learned of the plot and were already enraged by Osman's prior tactics. In 18 May 1622, they revolted, ousted Osman on 19 May 1622, and murdered him the next day.^[18]

Mustafa I's 2nd reign[]

Sultan Mustafa I returned to reign for a transitional time so that Murad could manage the Ottoman state's affairs, but Mustafa I was unable to do so. Kösem eventually reached an agreement with the grand vizier and the rest of the ministers to correct the situation, isolate Sultan Mustafa I, and install her son, Murad, as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.^[18][20]

Valide Sultan[]

Murad IV's reign[]

17th century oil painting depicting Murad IV in his young age

Kösem came back in power when her son ascended to the throne on 10 September 1623 as Murad IV. Since her son was a minor, she was appointed not only as a valide sultan but also as an official regent (naib-i-sultanat) during his minority, from her son's ascension on 10 September 1623 until 18 May 1632.^[18]

The Ottoman court sent a letter to the Republic of Venice in 1623 to announce Murad IV's accession to the throne. Kösem was addressed as ‘valide sultan' in the letter, which wrote:

"Her Majesty the Sultana Valide […] for the late Sultan Ahmed, whom Allah took with him, was a very important person and he loved her so much that he honored her by marrying her."

Shortly after Murad IV's enthronement in 1623, a Venetian ambassadorial message remarked on Kösem's political experience:

"[A]ll power and authority [is with] the mother, a woman completely different from that of Sultan Mustafa, in the prime of life and of lofty mind and spirit, [who] often took part in the government during the reign of her husband.”^[21]

Roe, the English envoy, wrote a month before the Venetian despatch, predicting that the new sultan would be "gouemed by his mother, who gouemed his father, a man of spirit and witt."^[21]

During most of Murad’s early reign, his mother, Kösem, essentially ruled through him and effectively ran the empire, attending meetings of the divan (cabinet) from behind a curtain.

A few years later, Murad was twice ill to the point where his life was in peril, according to a Venetian ambassadorial message from September 1628. Another letter expresses the similar worry that the young sultan be counseled and chastised by the grand vizier, if not by Kösem herself. It also implies that Kösem was getting information about events outside the palace from Murad rather than directly:

“I heard from my son that he had written you and warned you that [your steward] is not a man of good intentions. Is it true that he is giving you a bad name? To a degree it is a pasha's own men who cause his bad reputation. May God give them the reward they deserve. I'm not referring to anything specific. A friend is one who tells a person his faults to his face. I wouldn't wish ill on any of you. May God protect us all from evil. I wish you would listen to me and have them stop practicing the javelin in the Hippodrome. Why can't they go play in Langa? My son loves it, I lose my mind over it. Whoever says it's good for him is lying. Caution him about it, but not right away. What can I do? My words are bitter to him now. Just let him stay alive, he is vital to all of us. I have so many troubles I can't begin to write them all. You must give him as much advice as you can—if he doesn't listen to one thing, he'll listen to another.”^[22]

In the following year, Murad moved to break Kösem's damad ties with Admiral Hüseyin Pasha, the spouse of her daughter Fatima. Murad had the marriage dissolved after becoming enraged by his mother's excessive support for the Pasha. Hüseyin Pasha had benefited from the protection of both the powerful chief black eunuch and the valide sultan. Murad's move against the otherwise successful admiral may have stemmed from his wish to break free from the influence of his inner palace advisers and exercise authority over the government's most influential officers. Kösem is said to have tried to satisfy her son with a gift of ornately dressed horses and a banquet of ten thousand aspers.^[23]

In 1632, Kösem's 9-year term of office ended, and her son removed her from the political scene quickly, after Murad IV decided not to allow any power to interfere in his administration of the empire, and ordered Kösem to cut off her contacts with his statesmen, and threatened her with exclusion and exile away from the capital if she did not comply.^[24][25]

During the early years of Murad’s sultanate, the Empire fell into anarchy; the Safavid Empire invaded Iraq almost immediately, Northern Anatolia erupted in revolts, and in 1632 the Janissaries stormed the palace and killed the grand vizier, among others. Murad feared suffering the same fate as his elder brother, Osman II, and decided to assert his power. He later tried to quell the corruption that had grown during the reigns of previous sultans, and that had not been checked while his mother was ruling through proxy. His absolute rule started around 1632, when he took the authority and repressed all the tyrants, and he re-established the supremacy of sultan.^[25]

During Murad IV's departure on a royal advance through the area near Bursa in 1634, Kösem moved quickly to safeguard him from a threat of sedition. Murad's execution of an Iznik judge for a minor offense sparked such outrage among Istanbul's religious hierarchy that reports began to circulate that the mufti Ahizade Hüseyin Efendi was stirring up sentiment against the sultan and plotting hot overthrow him. When the valide sultan learned about the accusations against the mufti, she promptly sent word to Murad to return to the capital as soon as possible. The unfortunate Hüseyin Efendi was strangled before proof of his innocence could reach the irate sultan. This was the first execution of a mufti in the history of the Ottoman state.^[26]

Following the capture of Baghdad from the Safavids in 1638, Kösem was a key figure in the celebrations surrounding her son Murad's triumphal return to Istanbul. The valide sultan retraced her path after processing out of Istanbul to welcome Murad in İzmit, two days' journey from the city, while the sultan returned by sea. She rode in a carriage draped with gold fabric, its wheels studded, and spokes fully coated in gold, preceded by viziers and high-ranking religious authorities on gorgeously caparisoned horses. Twelve additional carriages followed the valide sultan's carriage, most likely transporting members of the harem.^[27]

During Murad’s final chaotic years, Kösem managed to convince Murad from preventing the murder of his sole surviving brother, Ibrahim, by arguing that he was ‘too mad to be a threat'.^[28]

Ibrahim I's reign[]

Kösem's other son, Ibrahim, lived in terror of being the next of his brothers to be executed by Murad's order. His life was only saved by the intercession of his mother Kösem.^[1] According to some historians, Murad was allegedly poisoned by Kösem, though this claim remains controversial. After Murad's death, Ibrahim was left the sole surviving prince of the dynasty. Upon being asked by the Grand Vizier Kemankeş Kara Mustafa Pasha to assume the sultanate, Ibrahim suspected Murad was still alive and plotting to trap him. It took the combined persuasion of Kösem and the grand vizier to make Ibrahim accept the throne. For instance, Kösem had ordered his brother's corpse to be displayed before him, and she threatened Ibrahim that he may face ‘strangulation, not inauguration' if he had refused to be crowned the Sultan.^[20]

When Ibrahim succeeded his brother in 1640, he proved too mentally unstable to rule. This enabled Kösem to continue in power. He was encouraged by his mother to distract himself with harem girls. The distractions of the harem allowed Kösem to gain power and rule in his name, yet even she fell victim to the sultan's disfavor and left the Imperial Palace.^[1]

Portrait of Mahpeyker Kösem Sultan, c. 19th century

As Ibrahim retreated from politics, he turned increasingly to his harem for comfort and pleasure. During his sultanate, the harem achieved new levels of luxury in perfumes, textiles and jewellery. Ibrahim's love of women and furs led him to have a room entirely lined with lynx and sable. Because of his infatuation with furs, the French dubbed him "Le Fou de' Fourrures."

According to one historian, "Ibrahim allegedly kidnapped a girl, held her as a slave in his harem for many days, and then returned her to her father". Despite his inappropriate behavior, Kösem helped to provide him with virgins and fat women, for whom he craved. He is said to have looked for the fattest woman in Istanbul. She was known as "Sugar Cube" by members of the harem. She was of Armenian origin, and the sultan was so enamored with her that he made her the Governor General of Damascus, which enraged Kösem.^[20][29]

In the early 1640s, Kösem triumphed over a concubine of her recently deceased son Murad IV in a dispute over the marital fortunes of Kaya Sultan, the concubine's thirteen-year-old daughter and Kosem's granddaughter. Kaya Sultan wanted to marry one of her own political friends, the previous sultan's sword-bearer, but Kösem's nominee, Melek Ahmed, won out.^[30]

Kösem kept track of the misdeeds of her "aggressive tax collectors," who were responsible for her massive hass income in order to boost their own take. Sarih ül-Menarzade, a historian who disapproved of Kösem's position and fortune, was quoted by Mustafa Naima as saying:

"The valide sultan's stewards... collected incalculable amounts of money. The peasants of the Ottoman domains suffered much violence and disaster on account of the excessive taxes, but because of their fear of the stewards, they were unable to inform the valide sultan or anyone else of their situation."^[31]

Ibrahim was informed by Sechir Para, the sultan's personal counselor, that one of his concubines had sexual contact with someone outside the harem. The rumor angered Ibrahim, so he began an inquiry to find out who the concubine was. After that, he took drastic steps, drowning 278 of his concubines in the Bosphorus Strait.^[32]

Ibrahim's behaviour sparked talks of deposing the sultan. In September 1647, Salih Pasha, Kösem, and the şeyhülislam Abdürrahim Efendi unsuccessfully plotted to depose the sultan and replace him with one of his sons. Jinji Hoja, a minor religious figure with occult powers who was brought into the palace to compensate for the Sultan's lack of successors. The sultan rewarded Jinji Hoja with a chief justiceship, the second highest ulema position, as a reward for his achievements. When Kösem lost control of the sultan, Jinji Hoja's appointment was just one of numerous examples of the overturning of authority and procedure at court.^[33][31] According to Naima:

“[T]he valide sultan would sometimes speak affectionately, giving counsel to the... padishah. But because he paid no attention to her, she became reluctant to talk with him, and for a long while resided in the gardens near Topkapi. During this time the padishah became angry as a result of some rumors and sent the grand vezir Ahmed Pasha to exile the valide sultan to the garden of Iskender (thereby breaking the hearts of all, great and small.”^[34]

Salih Pasha was executed and Kösem was exiled from the harem. Initially, Ibrahim planned to have Kösem exiled to the island of Rhodes, but this indignity was resisted by his hasekis, and the sentence commuted to exile in one of the imperial gardens in the capital. ^[33] Kösem has been accused of encouraging Ibrahim's desire in reproduction by diverting him with cuncubines so that she might take over the country. But, at least initially, her motivation was to ensure the dynasty's survival. Moreover, Kösem, like others, despised Ibrahim's concubines' excessive influence over public matters. During the closing months of Ibrahim's reign, Kösem was thrust back into the position of dynasty protector when the Janissary aghas, who were going to demand the resignation of the unpopular grand vizier, warned her to take great care to safeguard the princes' safety.^[35]

Engraving depicting the execution of Ibrahim I, by Paul Rycaut, 1694

The valide sultan's resistance had another purpose: it enabled for the practice of important political arguments. "Wasn't every single one of you raised up through the benevolence of the Ottoman dynasty?" Kösem asked the statesmen , emphasizing the need of dynasty allegiance. They replied with a holy law imperative: “a mentally ill person cannot lead the ummah, the community of Muslim believers.” The statesmen used a tactic at one point in the debate: they addressed the valide sultan as umm al-mu'minin, "mother of the [Muslim] believers." This honorific title, given to the wives of the Prophet Muhammad by Qur'anic revelation, gave Kösem an identity that allowed her to extend her maternal function as mentor/guardian beyond her son and the dynasty to the empire.^[35]

The next year, the Janissaries and members of the ulema revolted. For several hours, Kösem appealed with them but failed to do so, so she agreed to surrender when they promised not to murder Ibrahim, but instead imprison him. On 8 August 1648, Ibrahim was dethroned, seized and imprisoned in Topkapı Palace.^[1][36] Kösem gave consent to her son's fall, saying "In the end he will leave neither you nor me alive. We will lose control of the government. The whole society is in ruins. Have him removed from the throne immediately."^[37] The new grand vizier, Sofu Mehmed Pasha, petitioned the Sheikh ul-Islam for a fatwā sanctioning Ibrahim's execution. It was granted, with the message "if there are two caliphs, kill one of them." Kösem also gave her consent and two executioners were immediately sent.^[38] As the executioners drew closer, it was reported that Ibrahim's last words were: "Is there no one among those who have eaten my bread who will take pity on me and protect me? These cruel men have come to kill me. Mercy! Mercy!"^[39] Ibrahim was strangled to death on 18 August 1648.^[40]

Mehmed IV's reign[]

Eventually, Kösem rushed to the divan and presented her seven-year-old grandson, Mehmed, with the words "Here he is!, see what you can do with him!" Thus, she declared herself regent for the third time, and became the de facto ruler of the Ottoman Empire between 1648 and 1651. When a group of government authorities insisted that the palace send the sultan's seven-year-old son to be enthroned in a mosque, Kösem refused and demanded that they instead come to the palace. Her rejection was based on the fact that no sultan had ever been enthroned in a mosque before. Her purpose was undoubtedly in part to compel the situation to occur so that she could have some influence over the outcome. A crowd of people went to the palace, where Kösem resisted and complained, in Kâtip Çelebi's words:

"For so long you have permitted whatever my son wished [and] proved your loyalty; [and] not once has any of you admonished him or not wished him well. Now you wish to reverse the situation and criticize such an innocent one. This is an evil act.”

The matter was discussed for two hours, at the end of which she seemed in despair:

"All are united in the opinion that the Sultan must be deposed; it is impossible to do otherwise. You tell me that if I don't hand over the Prince, they will enter the palace and take him by force."^[41][42]

Left: Engraving of Sultan Mehmed IV in his young age (c. mid-17th century) Right: Engraving of Turhan Sultan as Valide Sultan (c. 19th century)

As the senior valide sultan, Kösem continued to be incredibly powerful. For instance, she forced the sitting grand vizier, Sofu Mehmed Pasha, into exile for refusing to follow her orders and replaced him with the former Janissary Kara Murat Pasha in 1649. She also accumulated a massive fortune through tax farming, owning and leasing commercial buildings, and investing extensively in diverse economic activities. She styled herself as Büyük Valide "the Great Valide Sultan" in 1649.^[43]

At the head of the Ottoman Empire stood the child sultan, Mehmed IV. With Mehmed's ascendancy, the position of valide sultan ("mother of the reigning sultan") should have gone to his mother Turhan Sultan. However, Turhan Sultan was overlooked due to her youth and inexperience. Instead, Kösem was reinstated to this high position. Kösem was a valide (mother) under two sons, thus having the more experience of the two women.^[44] The feud intensified between Turhan Sultan, the mother of Sultan Mehmed IV, whose influence began to increase. This feud continued for 3 years, until Kösem sought to overthrow her grandson Mehmed IV, particularly because of his powerful mother, Turhan Sultan, and replace him with Şehzade Suleiman.^[45]

Regency of Kösem Sultan (1623-1651)[]

Kösem, being a courtier to six Sultans, became regent for two of her sons and grandson. She gained enormous prominence and admiration among her subjects during her reign as regent, despite the fact that she would struggle to keep the powerful position to herself. Kösem achieved unprecedented influence over political decision-making in her role as protector of the Ottoman dynasty.^[46][47]

1st Tenure[]

Kösem Sultan's letter to the Grand Vizier

On Murad IV's accession to the Ottoman throne on September 10, 1623, Kösem was appointed regent of the Ottoman Empire. Several rebellions against the government occurred during her reign. She also put in a lot of effort to keep the Ottoman dynasty secure. Murad relinquished the regency of his mother when he was old enough to claim full authority of the Ottoman Empire. Murad despised his mother's meddling in his sultanship. As a result, he expelled his mother from all political and harem responsibilities in 1632. However, Kösem always warned her son about some government issues and was secretly present in court hearings, contacting court officials, military commanders and religious scholars.^[28]

But years later, Kösem found both the Sultan and the empire hard to control. Kösem expresses her concern about Murad's health in one of her letters to the grand vizier. It also implies that the sultana is frustrated by her lack of direct control over important decisions: She wrote to the grand vizier:

"Letters have come from Egypt—apparently to you too—which describe the situation there. Something absolutely must be done about Yemen—it's the gate to Mecca. You must do whatever you can. You'll talk to my son about this. I tell you, my mind is completely distraught over this [the Yemen situation].... It is going to cause you great difficulty, but you will earn God's mercy through service to the community of Muhammad. How are you getting along with salary payments? Is there much left? With the grace of God, you will take care of that obligation and then take up the Yemen situation. My son leaves in the morning and comes back at night, I never see him. He won't stay out of the cold, he's going to get sick again. I tell you, this grieving over the child is destroying me. Talk to him, when you get a chance. He must take care of himself. What can I do—he won't listen. He's just gotten out of a sickbed and he's walking around in the cold. All this has destroyed my peace of mind. All I wish is for him to stay alive. At least try to do something about Yemen. May God help us with this situation we are in.... You two know what's best."^[48]

2nd Tenure[]

Kösem regained control after Murad IV's death on February 8, 1640, through her son Ibrahim. This was due to Ibrahim's lack of experience and desire to rule. He enjoyed the inner palace's pleasures and spent much of his time with his concubines. While Ibrahimbegan his sultanate under the tutelage of his mother, he ultimately rejected her authority entirely. Between 9 February 1640 and 8 August 1648, Kösem was able to effectively govern the Ottoman Empire.^[44]

Ibrahim I, engraved by Arolsen Klebeband, 1641

Kösem did have a less compatible relationship with Mustafa Pasha than she had with the grand vezirs of Murad's early reign. Kösem was a clever and experienced politician, now in her second regency and fourth decade of political engagement. Mustafa Pasha, who had served as Murad's last grand vizier, no likely anticipated to wield unrestricted power. The competition between the two was reported by the Venetian ambassador Alvise Contarini:

"In the present government, to the extent that this son's capabilities are less, she is held in greater esteem [than at the end of Murad's reign]. And thus, with her commanding affairs within the palace and the grand vezir [commanding] those outside, it happens quite often that these two rulers come up against each other and in doing so take offense at each other, so that one can say that in appearance they are in accord but secretly each is trying to bring about the downfall of the other."^[49]

In the following years, Kösem attended a conference with leading viziers at the entrance to the harem. The Aga of the Janissaries, who complained to her about Ibrahim's failure to combat rebellions in the Balkans region, wrote to Kösem:

"Gracious mistress, the folly and madness of the Padishah have put the world in danger; the infidels have taken forty castles on the frontiers of Bosnia and are blockading the Dardanelles with eighty ships while the Padishah thinks only of pleasure, debauch and selling offices."

Nonetheless, the early years of Ibrahim's rule were relatively peaceful and prosperous, with the grand vizier and valide sultan handling most of the affairs. Mustafa Pasha's government was recognized ten years later as a model of excellent budgetary management. Ibrahim, on the other hand, eventually triumphed against both his mother and his grand vizier, Kara Mustafa Pasha, exiling the former and killing the latter in 1644. The empire's subsequent rapid descent into budgetary and military disarray illustrates how reliant the Ottoman polity was on strong central authority.^[49]

3rd Tenure[]

Kösem's grandson, Mehmed IV, became Sultan on 8 August 1648, making Kösem the de facto ruler of the Ottoman Empire from 8 August 1648 until her death in 2 September 1651. During the beginning of Mehmed IV‘s reign, Kösem would usually sit beside the Sultan, concealed behind a curtain, if the Sultan's presence was needed at the divan. Her candor outweighed her caution. To those who complained about Mehmed IV’s handling over the sultanate, Kösem would chastise the statesmen in abrasive, thatcheresque tones in front of their faces:^[39]

"Have I made you vizier to spend your time in gardens and vineyards: Devote yourself to the affairs of the empire and let me hear no more of your deportments!"

During this time, Kösem also gained a political rival, the junior Valide Sultan, Turhan Sultan. Because of the youth of Turhan, Kösem was requested by leading statesmen to continue on as regent to the next sultan, her seven-year-old grandson Mehmed IV, instead of retiring and giving her position to the mother of Ibrahim's successor. Turhan, on the other hand, began to exert what she saw to be her rightful authority.^[50]

According to Abdülaziz Efendi, then the chief justice of Rumeli and a central figure in the dynastic upheavals of the time, it was considered prudent to appoint the more experienced woman regent in contravention of tradition:

"It being an ancient custom that upon the accession of a new sultan the mother of the previous sultan remove to the Old Palace and thus give up her honored office, the elder valide requested permission to retire to a life of seclusion. But because the loving mother of the [new] sultan was still young and truly ignorant of the state of the world, it was thought that if she were in control of government, there would result the possibility of harm to the welfare of the state. Therefore the elder valide was reappointed for a while longer to the duty of training and guardianship, and it was considered appropriate to re-new the assignment of crown lands to the valide sultan."^[51]

However, Kösem's interpretation of her mission does not appear to have been widely accepted. She inherited direct sultanic authority as a politician, undoubtedly one of the most experienced and informed of the ruling elite. It was unavoidable that Kösem would fight with the grand vizier, Sofu Mehmed Pasha, who appears to have seen himself as both regent and temporary ruler. According to the historian Naima, the grand vizier was misled by "certain would-be doctors of religion" who quoted legal texts to the effect that the guardian of a minor sultan was entitled to exercise the prerogatives of sovereignty.

Oil painting of Turhan Sultan titled De Emina, Femme De Sultan Hibraim by L. Seculin, c. 19th century

In any event, the grand vizier was unable to resist the power of Kösem and her Janissary allies. During an imperial audience to which all leading statesmen were summoned, the sultan, with his grandmother seated at his side behind a curtain, dismissed Sofu Mehmed Pasha and appointed the Agha of the Janissaries, Kara Murad Pasha, to the vacant office. Speaking from behind the curtain, Kösem defended her role and silenced her critics in a speech the vehemence of which surprised all present. She cited the former grand vizier's shortcomings, including his plans to assassinate her, to which she commented:

"Thanks to God, I have lived through four reigns and I have governed myself for a long while. The world will be neither reformed nor destroyed by my death."^[51]

She then chastised Abdülaziz Efendi, ally of the former grand vizier, by referring to his rebuke of Mehmed IV:

"When certain imperial commands have been issued, they have said [to the sultan], ‘my dear, who taught you to say these things?' Such patronizing behavior towards sultans is impermissible! And what if the sultan is instructed?"

In Naima's words, Abdülaziz Efendi "drowned in the sea of mortification."^[52]

By enthroning Ibrahim's second son, Suleiman, and making his mother, Aşub Sultan, the future Valide Sultan, Kösem and the Janissaries attempted to depose Mehmed IV and his mother, Turhan Sultan.^[53]

Assassination[]

Murder of Kösem Sultan engraving by Paul Rycaut, 1694

It was Mehmed IV's mother, Turhan Sultan, who proved to be Kösem's nemesis. When she was about 12 years old, Turhan was sent to the Topkapı Palace as a gift from the khan of Crimea to Kösem.^[54][55] It was probably Kösem who gave Turhan Sultan to Ibrahim as a concubine. Turhan turned out to be too ambitious a woman to lose such a high position without a fight. In her struggle to become valide sultan, Turhan was supported by the chief black eunuch in her household and the grand vizier, while Kösem was supported by the Janissary Corps. Although Kösem's position as valide was seen as the best for the government, the people resented the influence of the Janissaries on the government.^[2]

In this power struggle, Kösem planned to dethrone Mehmed IV and replace him with another young grandson. According to one historian, this switching had more to do with replacing an ambitious daughter-in-law with one who was more easily controlled. According to Mustafa Naima, Kösem secretly asked the palace guards to leave the palace gates open so that Janissaries could sneak in and kill Turhan Sultan in her chambers. Additionally, Kösem gave two bottles of poisoned sherbet to Uveys Agha, the head helva (sweets) maker in the palace kitchen, to serve to the young Mehmed IV. She promised Uveys Agha a promotion if he succeeded in poisoning the sultan. The day before enacting the plan, however, one of Kösem's slaves, Meleki Hatun, betrayed her and revealed the plot to Turhan Sultan, and the plan had failed.^[2][18]

Engraving depicting the strangulation of Kösem Sultan, 1812

On 2 September 1651, a large group of Turhan Sultan's armed followers led by Lala Stileyman Agha approached Kösem's apartment, which was guarded by over three hundred armed Janissaries. When Kösem's chief private guard, has odabap, refused to let the assassins in, they attacked and cut him to pieces. Lala Süleyman Agha and the armed men then broke into her apartment, swiftly killing the other guards on their way.^[18]

It has been said that a loyal slave of Kösem tried to save her mistress by shouting: "I am the Valide!", attempting to fool the eunuchs and pages, although they were not deceived. Kösem is said to have hidden in a cupboard in the wall of a staircase in the Valide's apartment. A piece of dress protruding under the door betrayed her to a halberdier. One of her assailants, Kucuk Mehmed Agha, found her and dragged her out by her long braids and started beating her. As she struggled to get away, Lala Süleyman Agha strangled her with a piece of cord that he tore off the curtains. She struggled so much that blood spurted out of her ears and nose and soiled the murderer's clothes. 'The massacred Valide', as she became known, left 2,700 shawls, twenty chests of gold and a lasting reputation in the city for piety and generosity. The assailants looted her chambers.^[56]

Some have speculated that Kösem was strangled with a curtain by the chief black eunuch of the harem, Lala Süleyman Agha. The Ottoman renegade Bobovi, relying on an informant in the harem, stated that Kösem was strangled with her own hair.^[57]

Aftermath[]

Execution of Kösem Sultan portrayed in Histoire de l'état présent de l'Empire Ottoman, 1670

When news of Kösem's death became public in September 3, 1651, the people of Istanbul spontaneously observed three days of mourning.^[56] In the following day, Istanbul's mosques and markets were closed for three days. The assassination of Kösem sparked a political uproar and a wave of retaliation. The first phase was the assassination of Kösem's Janissary supporters and the demise of the faction they led, which had ruled the country during Kösem's three-year regency over Mehmed. In the second phase, public outrage over the purge prompted Turhan's new royal administration to dismiss the grand vizier who had carried out the executions. By this time, a huge crowd had gathered by the gates of Topkapi Palace, the Sultan summoned his statesmen and the palace functionaries to the audience. Fired up, the crowd blamed the janissaries for Kösem's murder and swore to avenge it.^[58]

Evliya Çelebi, a famous Ottoman traveler, writer, and admirer of Kösem Sultan, described the regicide:

“The mother of the world, wife of Sultan Ahmed (I); mother of Osman (II), Orhan, Bayezid, Murad (IV), and Ibrahim; the grand Kösem Valide—was strangled by the Chief Black Eunuch Div Süleyman Agha. He did it by twisting her braids around her neck. So that gracious benefactress was martyred. When the Istanbul populace heard of this they closed the mosques and the bazaars for three days and nights. There was a huge commotion. Several hundred people were put to death, secretly and publicly, and Istanbul was in a tumult."^[59]

After Kösem's death in 1651, it was reported that twenty boxes loaded with gold coins were discovered in the great han she had built. The valide sultans' cash fortune could be transformed into profit: for example, in 1664, the profit on cash investments accounted for nearly two-thirds of the revenue of the endowment established for Safiye Sultan's Karamanlu mosque. In addition to directly endowing funds, the valide sultans are likely to have utilized their funds to acquire the above-mentioned urban assets. The valide sultan's riches and business transactions were so broad that her many agents might become very wealthy and enjoy popular esteem. When recording in his history the death of Kösem's steward, Koja Behram, Naima commented:

“The afore-mentioned Behram Kethiida enjoyed great prestige and distinction and wealth. As the manager of all the affairs of the valide sultan and the pious institutions she had established, and as an extremely trustworthy man, he acquired a great deal of wealth and property. But his children and his grandchildren did not maintain the high stature he had enjoyed, and his wealth and property were squandered.”^[31]

In September 2, 1651, Kösem's body was taken from Topkapi to the Old Palace (Eski Sarayı) and then buried in the mausoleum of her husband Ahmed I.^[60]

Charities[]

Büyük Valide Han was commissioned in 1651 by Kösem Sultan, this Ottoman building accommodated thousands of traveling merchants for more than 350 years

Kösem made charities and donations both for people and ruling class in the state. She would leave the palace in disguise every year in the Islamic month of Rajab to personally arrange for the release of imprisoned debtors and other offenders (excluding murderers) by paying their debts or recompense for their crimes.^[61] She supplied the trousseaus of daughters of poor families and servant girls trained by her, wedded them and won their confidence. She had (tr) and a school near it constructed in Üsküdar in 1640 and she also had the small mosques and fountain of the Valide madrasa of Anadolu Kavağı, fountain in Yenikapı, Valide Han mosques, fountains in Beşiktaş and Eyüp and Valide Caravanserai in Çakmakçilar Yokuşu built. It is also known that she had also laid fountains built outside the city of Istanbul.^[62]

Çinili Mosque, commissioned by Kösem Sultan in 1640

Kösem established a foundation to meet the needs of pilgrims in need of water, to assist the poor in Haremeyn, and to have the Koran read in this place. She also funded the construction of Büyük Valide Han in Istanbul, which served a variety of purposes, including providing accommodation for foreign traders, storing goods or merchandise, housing artisan workshops, and providing offices from which to conduct business.^[63]

She financed irrigation works in Egypt and provided relief for the poor people of Mecca. Kösem was renowned for her charity work and for freeing her slaves after 3 years of service.

Legacy[]

In 1623, Kösem re-entered the political arena and returned to Topkapi as Valide Sultan and a regent (naib-i-sultanat) with her son, Sultan Murad IV, as a result of their deeds. At the same time, Halime Sultan and her son Mustafa, who suffered from mental illness, experienced the shift in power. Kösem decided to sit on the throne for her other son, Ibrahim, after Murad died in 1640. He was Kösem's last surviving prince, and for the following eight years, they governed together. Ibrahim was dethroned and imprisoned on August 8, 1648. Mehmed IV, Ibrahim's son with Turhan Hatice, was his successor. On August 18, 1648, Ibrahim was put to death. Turhan was the junior Valide Sultan, and she planned to put an end to her mother-in-rule rule over the empire. Kösem died in order to fulfill her deepest desire: power.

Kösem destroyed the palace's budget and had no sympathy for her political foes, but she appeared to care about the needy individuals who sought her assistance. She refused to be just another Ottoman court widow, and instead rose to become the empire's true ruler. Her judgments had such an impact that noblemen in her empire vowed that no woman would ever be so influential again after she died. Her death in 1651 had marked the end of a period of prominence for women in Topkapi Palace (also known as the Sultanate of Women.)

In 2015, Muhteşem Yüzyl: Kösem, a Turkish television series, commemorated Kösem's role as regent of the Ottoman Empire and she was recognized by many historians as a significant figure in the history of the Ottoman Empire.

Issue[]

Kösem Sultan's sons who were Sultans of the Ottoman Empire. Left: Murad IV (ca. 1612–1640) Right: Ibrahim (ca. 1615–1648)

Kösem's sons were:

• Şehzade Mehmed^{[64] [65]} (11 March 1605 - 12 January 1621), disputed son of Kösem and Ahmed.
• Murad IV^[64][65] (26/27 July 1612 – 8 February 1640), sultan from 20 January 1623 until his death
• Şehzade Süleyman^[64][4] (1613 – murdered 27 July 1635).
• Şehzade Kasım^[64][65] (early 1614 – 17 February 1638), heir apparent since 1635
• Ibrahim^[64][65] (5 November 1615 – 18 August 1648), sultan from 9 February 1640 until 12 August 1648

Kösem's daughters were:^[64][65]

• Gevherhan Sultan^[64][66]
• Ayşe Sultan^[64][4]
• Fatma Sultan^[64][66]
• Hanzade Sultan^[66]

In popular culture[]

• Genç Osman ve Sultan Murat Han (1962) movie, starring Muhterem Nur as Kösem Sultan
• IV. Murat (1980) TV series, starring Ayten Gökçer as Kösem Sultan
• Istanbul Kanatlarımın Altında (1996) movie, starring Zuhal Olcay as Kösem Sultan
• Ankara Theatre (2013–2014 season) Özlem Ersönmez as Kösem Sultan.
• Mahpeyker: Kösem Sultan (2010), starring Damla Sönmez (as young Kösem) and Selda Alkor (as old Kösem)^[67]
• Tims Production produced a historical fiction television series following Muhteşem Yüzyıl, titled Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem, starring Anastasia Tsilimpiou as young Kösem and Beren Saat^[68] as adult Kösem in season one. In season two, middle aged Kösem was portrayed by Nurgül Yeşilçay.^[69]

Gallery[]

• 

  Contemporary portrait by an unknown painter, c. 1612-1618

• 

  Portrait of Mahpeyker Kösem Sultan, c. 19th century

• 

  Murder of Kösem Sultan by Paul Rycaut, c. 1694 (engraving)

• 

  Engraving depicting the strangulation of Kösem Sultan, c. 1812

• 

  Execution of Kösem Sultan portrayed in Histoire de l'état présent de l'Empire Ottoman, 1670

• 

  Büyük Valide Han was built in 1651 by Kösem Sultan

• 

  Çinili Mosque, commissioned by Kösem Sultan in 1640

See also[]

• List of mothers of the Ottoman sultans
• List of consorts of the Ottoman sultans
• Ottoman dynasty
• Ottoman family tree
• Hurrem Sultan
• Sultanate of Women

Bibliography[]

• Mansel, Philip (1995). Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0719550769.
• Imber, Colin (2009), "The Ottoman Empire"; New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
• Peirce, Leslie P. (1993), The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195086775
• Tezcan, Baki (2007). "The Debut of Kösem Sultan's Political Career". Turcica. Éditions Klincksieck. 39–40.
• Lucienne Thys-Senocak, Ottoman Women Builders (Aldershot: Ashgate 2006).
• Piterberg, Gabriel (2003). An Ottoman Tragedy: History and Historiography at Play. California: University of California Press. p. 271. ISBN 0-520-23836-2.

Notes[]

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