Kererū

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Kereru" redirects here. For the planet, see Kererū (planet). For "Kereru Homestead and Station" in the Hawkes Bay region, see Maraekakaho.

Kererū
Kereru perched on kowhai at Otari Native Botanic Garden.jpg
In Otari-Wilton's Bush, Wellington

Near Threatened (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Columbiformes
Family: Columbidae
Genus: Hemiphaga
Species:
H. novaeseelandiae
Binomial name
Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae
(Gmelin, 1789)
Synonyms

Columba novaeseelandiae Gmelin
Carpophaga novaeseelandiae (Gmelin)

The kererū (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) or New Zealand pigeon is the only pigeon endemic to the New Zealand mainland. This species is also known as kūkupa or kūkū in parts of the North Island. It is a large, conspicuous pigeon with a white breast and green-blue plumage. Kererū can be found throughout New Zealand at altitudes ranging from coastal to montane. They inhabit native forest, scrubland, and more developed habitats such as city parks and domestic gardens.

Kererū feed mainly on fruits though they also consume leaves, buds and flowers, particularly during their breeding season. It is the only remaining New Zealand bird capable of swallowing large fruit, and so is an important seed disperser for native trees. After eating, kererū often bask in the sun. This behaviour can lead to fruit fermenting in their crop, causing the bird to become intoxicated.

Kererū fly with distinctively noisy wingbeats. During breeding season the male of the species undertakes display flights where he ascends steeply and appears to stall at the top of the flight, before completing a steep swooping descent. The breeding pair nest in trees, laying one egg in a flimsy nest made of twigs. The egg is incubated for around 28 days, and the hatchling takes 30 to 45 days to mature enough to take flight.

Although widespread in both forest and urban habitats, their numbers have declined significantly since European colonisation and the arrival of mammalian invasive species such as rats, stoats and possums. However, the results of nationwide bird surveys undertaken as citizen science projects indicate that there has been a significant recovery in the population of kererū in suburban areas, with a 55% increase in reported sightings between 2015 and 2020. Despite this, as at 2021 the IUCN Red List classifies the species as "Near Threatened". The Department of Conservation classifies kererū as "Not Threatened" though conservation dependent, in their Threat Classification System.

Kererū are considered taonga to Māori. They were a significant food source and were the food of choice for Matariki or Puanga celebrations. However, due to the previous decline in their population, the hunting of kererū is currently illegal. From the 1990s, the issue of whether to re-establish the customary harvest of kererū has received public and political attention. It has been argued that preventing the customary harvests of taonga such as kererū is in-part degrading or facilitating the loss of mātauranga (traditional knowledge) among Māori. Currently, customary use of kererū is restricted to the use of feathers and bones obtained from dead birds collected by the Department of Conservation. Kererū feathers can be used to make korowai (cloaks) and tails feathers are used to decorate the tahā huahua (food storage containers).

Taxonomy[]

The extinct Norfolk pigeon (H. n. spadicea)

The kererū was first described by German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1789 as Columba novaeseelandiae.[2] The genus Hemiphaga was introduced by the French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1854 with the kererū (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) as the type species for that genus.[3] The name combines the Ancient Greek hēmi meaning "half-" or "small" with the end of the genus name Carpophaga introduced by English naturalist Prideaux John Selby in 1835.[4]

Two subspecies are recognised: H. n. novaseelandiae, which is found in mainland New Zealand, and the Norfolk pigeon (H. n. spadicea) of Norfolk Island, now extinct. The subspecies differed in their plumage colour and shape.[5] In 2001, it was proposed that a third subspecies, H. n. chathamensis or the Chatham Island pigeon, should be raised to full species status as H. chathamensis on the basis of its distinct plumage, larger size and differing bone structure.[6] This has since been accepted by most authorities.[7][8] Analysis of mitochondrial DNA confirmed the Kereru and Norfolk pigeons to be more closely related to each other than the Chatham pigeon, and that dispersal between the three landmasses most likely occurred during the Pleistocene epoch.[9]

The kererū belongs to the family Columbidae, and the subfamily Ptilinopinae, which is found throughout Southeast Asia, Malaya, Australia and New Zealand. The members of this subfamily feed largely on fruits, mainly stone fruit.[10] Within the subfamily, the kererū and Chatham pigeon are in a clade with a lineage that has given rise to the topknot pigeon (Lopholaimus antarcticus) of Australia and the mountain pigeons (Gymnophaps) of New Guinea.[11]

"New Zealand pigeon" has been designated the official common name of the kererū by the International Ornithologists' Union (IOC).[12] "Kererū" (which is both singular and plural) is the most common Māori name, and now the most common name used in New Zealand English. It is also known as kūkupa and kūkū in some parts of the North Island, particularly in Northland.[13] The name is increasingly spelled with the macron that indicates a long vowel. Kererū have also been called "wood pigeons",[14] but this is misleading because they are not closely related to the wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) of the Northern Hemisphere, which is a member of a different genus.

Description[]

Closeup of head showing iridescent feathers

The kererū is a large arboreal pigeon weighing 550–850 grams (19–30 oz),[15] and can be up to 51 centimetres (20 in) in length.[13] Its appearance is that of a typical pigeon, in that it has a relatively small head, a straight soft-based bill and loosely attached feathers.[10] The breast is typically white, its plumage is an iridescent blue-green, and the bill is red with an orange tip.[16] The feet and eyes are red. Juveniles have a similar colouration but are generally paler with dull colours for the beak, eyes and feet and a shorter tail.[16]

Kererū make occasional soft coo sounds (hence the onomatopoeic names), and their wings make a very distinctive "whooshing" sound as they fly.[17] The bird's flight is also distinctive. Birds will often ascend slowly before making steep parabolic dives.[16]

Distribution and habitat[]

Kererū can be found throughout New Zealand,[13] and historically were abundant throughout the country.[18] Their lack of genetic diversity suggests they retreated to forest refugia during periods of Quaternary glaciation and rapidly spread across the country again when the climate grew warmer.[9] The species can be found in forests from Northland to Stewart Island/Rakiura and offshore islands; kererū bone has been recovered from Raoul Island in the Kermadecs, confirming kererū once inhabited the Kermadecs, though the species was made locally extinct through hunting and cat predation in the late 1800s.[19] They can be found in a variety of habitats including in native lowland forest, scrub, the countryside, and city gardens and parks.[20] The species can be found in habitats ranging in altitude from coastal to montane.[21] However, their population underwent a significant decline after European settlement of New Zealand.[18] This was due mainly to a decrease in habitat, introduced predators and hunting.[18] Currently, whether kererū are present at a particular location within New Zealand is dependent on numerous factors such as forest cover, forest type and density of predators.[18]

Behaviour[]

The kererū displays typical pigeon behaviour, including drinking by suction (unlike many birds which drink by raising their heads, using the assistance of gravity),[22] a diving display flight, and ritualised 'billing' during courtship. Kererū also feed crop milk to hatchlings.[10][5]

Diet[]

A New Zealand pigeon stands on the fruiting spike of a cabbage tree
Kererū were once the major dispersers of the seeds of cabbage trees. They eat the small white seeds in autumn and winter.

Kererū are primarily frugivorous, preferring fruit from native trees, but also eating leaves, flowers and buds.[23] They are the only birds capable of eating the largest native fruits and drupes (those with smallest diameter greater than 1 cm), and spreading the seeds intact.[24] Kererū are the primary seed dispersers for six New Zealand native plants with large seeds: tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa), karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus), puriri (Vitex lucens), taraire (Beilschmiedia tarairi), tawapou (Pouteria costata) and Elingamita johnsonii.[24] Because of their diverse diet and their widespread distribution, kererū play an important ecological role, and are vital to the health of podocarp-broadleaf forest.[25][26] After eating, kererū often sun themselves while digesting their food. This behaviour can lead to the fruit fermenting in the bird's crop, particularly during warm summer weather, and can cause the bird to become intoxicated.[14]

While fruit comprises the major part of their diets, kererū also browse on leaves and buds from a wide variety of both native and exotic species, especially nitrogen-rich foliage during breeding.[27]

Their diet changes seasonally as the availability of fruit changes, and leaves can comprise most of their diet at certain times of the year.[28] Preferred leaves include kōwhai, tree lucerne, willow, elm, and poplar.[23]

Breeding[]

Kererū courtship display (24 s)
A kererū chick in the nest

Breeding generally depends on the availability of ripe fruit, which varies seasonally, annually, and by location. Kererū, like other frugivorous pigeons, feed on many species with tropical affinities, including the Lauraceae and Arecaceae,[29][30][31][32] which abound in the essentially subtropical forests of northern New Zealand. They also feed on podocarp species such as miro and kahikatea, which are thought to have existed since the time of the supercontinent Gondwana.[30][31][32][33] In the warmer northern half of the North Island, kererū can nest all year round, except when moulting between March and May, provided enough fruit is available.[26] Further south fewer subtropical tree species grow, and in these areas breeding usually occurs between October (early spring) and April (late summer/early autumn), again depending on fruit availability.

In the breeding season, male kererū perform display flights, where the bird ascends steeply and appears to stall at the top of the flight, before a steep swooping descent. Courtship display includes the male turning around on a perch adjacent to a female, placing the tip of the bill into a wing, and stretching out his neck while bowing his head. The male then bounces up and down with his bill resting on his chest, and proceeds to mate with the female if she is receptive.[34][35]

Kererū nest in trees, laying a single egg, in flimsy, shallow nests constructed with twigs. The egg is incubated for 28–29 days, with male and female birds taking turns to incubate the egg in shifts of around six hours.[17] After hatching the young bird takes another 30–45 days to fledge.[36] In seasons of plentiful fruit the kererū can successfully nest up to four times.[26]

Conservation[]

Traffic sign in New Zealand cautioning drivers of nearby kererū

Kererū were very numerous until the 1960s, but they have since come under threat from introduced mammalian species, hunting, habitat degradation, and poor reproductive success.[37][36][38][39] The introduced Australian common brushtail possum and introduced species of rats – mainly the black rat, but also the Polynesian rat and brown rat – have significantly reduced the amount of fruit available for kererū and other native birds, and also prey on kererū eggs and nestlings.[26][40][41] Restrictions on the shooting of kererū were enacted as early as 1864, and total protection was granted in 1921,[10] although the enforcement against hunting was not consistent. Some Māori protested, claiming a traditional right to hunt the pigeon.[42] The bird is fully protected under the 1953 Wildlife Act and there have been prosecutions for shooting it.[43]

Kererū are also vulnerable to injury or death as a result of collisions with vehicles. A large number of kererū fatalities have been reported alongside State Highway 2 in Wellington, as a result of low-flying birds being struck by vehicles as they flew across the motorway to feed on the flowers of tree lucerne.[44] Kererū can also be injured or killed following collisions with the windows of buildings.[45] In 2021, the Urban Wildlife Trust commenced a campaign to help protect kererū and other birds from colliding with the large glazed areas surrounding the upper terminal building of the Wellington Cable Car, adjacent to Wellington Botanic Gardens. The proposed solution was the installation of a grid of dots permanently fixed to approximately 150 square metres of glass.[46]

As of 2021 the kererū has been classified under the IUCN Red List as "near threatened", but the listing reports an increasing population trend.[47] The Department of Conservation classifies the kererū under the New Zealand threat classification system as "not threatened" with an increasing population but views the species as conservation dependent.[48] However it has been argued that several of the factors that caused the historic decrease in population are still present and could continue to damage the population.[18]

The Great Kererū Count[]

Advertising for The Great Kererū Count 2021

A survey of kererū population has been undertaken annually since 2013 using observations from members of the public, taken over a 10 day period. The Great Kererū Count is claimed to be New Zealand's largest citizen science project. It is a project led by the conservation organisations Kererū Discovery and Urban Wildlife Trust, in conjunction with city councils in Wellington, Dunedin and Nelson, and Victoria University of Wellington.[49][50] The findings from the annual count, together with the results of a separate citizen science project – the annual New Zealand Garden Bird Survey – indicate that there has been a recovery in the population of kererū in suburban areas, with a 55% increase in reported sightings between 2015 and 2020.[51]

Bird of the Year 2018[]

In 2018, the kererū was the winner of the annual Bird of the Year competition run by the New Zealand Forest & Bird organisation.[52][53]

Relationship with humans[]

Illustration of New Zealand pigeon: A History of the Birds of New Zealand, Buller,1888
New Zealand pigeon: A History of the Birds of New Zealand, Buller, 1888

As taonga[]

Kererū are considered taonga to Māori. The birds were traditionally used for both their meat and feathers – as such, for various iwi such as Ngāi Tūhoe, the kererū forms a significant part of their cultural identity.[54]

Hunting for food[]

Snaring was the most common method of capturing kererū; less commonly, they were speared.[37] One type of snaring involved waka kererū, where snares were placed on the sides of a water trough suspended in a tree.[37][55] As the kererū landed to drink from the trough, they would become caught by the snare. Occasionally, tame kererū were used as decoys to entice others.[56] Once caught, kererū were typically preserved in their own fat within tahā huahua (gourd vessels).[37][55]

Kererū were the food of choice associated with Puanga celebrations as the birds are fat from eating berries that ripen during this time.[57] They also tended to be easier to catch at this time of year, as the berries they prefer to eat ferment in the bird's crop, causing them to become drunk.[57]

Use of feathers[]

Kererū feathers were retained for making korowai (cloaks), while the tails were used to decorate the tahā huahua (food storage containers).[54][37][55]

In Māori mythology[]

The kererū also plays a part in Māori mythology and lore, and has associations with the hero and trickster Māui.[58] In one such tradition, Māui took the form of a kererū when he went down into the underworld in search of his parents. The reason for the kererū's iridescent green-blue and white plumage is because when Māui transformed into the kererū, he was carrying the skirt/apron and belt of his mother, Tāranga.[37] The apron, Te Taro o Tāranga, is represented by the white breast feathers; the belt, Te Tātua a Tāranga, is signified by the green-blue feathers on the neck of the kererū.[59]

In archaeological sites[]

Kererū have been identified amongst the diverse species of both forest and seabirds found in archaeological sites throughout New Zealand, in both inland and coastal sites.[60] Identification of bone specimens in archaeological sites has been difficult due to their being fragmented during preparation for food[61] or because fine-mesh sieving was not carried out during excavations to retrieve bone samples.[62] A genetic analysis of bones from paleontological and archaeological sites, to determine the extent of fauna and the human impact on them, identified kererū bones at seven archaeological sites.[61][63][64] Kererū bones were recovered from sites excavated at Harataonga Bay on Great Barrier Island in 1962 and 2000; the sites were dated to c. 14th century and late in the prehistoric period of settlement.[62] In the South Island, excavations in 2018 at the Raincliff rock art shelter in South Canterbury revealed kererū bones along with moa, extinct New Zealand quail and rat bones.[65] Kererū bones, along with bones of other forest birds kaka, kakapo and red-crowned parakeets, were also found in rock shelter sites on Lee Island, Lake Te Anau in Southland.[66]

Current harvesting[]

From the 1990s, the issue of whether to re-establish the customary harvest of kererū has received significant public and political attention.[67] The first legal restrictions on kererū harvests were created by the Wild Birds Protection Act 1864, which established hunting seasons for the species.[42] With kererū populations declining across the country, harvests became increasingly restricted by the Government.[68] This culminated in the Animals Protection and Game Act 1921–1922, which designated the kererū as an absolutely protected species.[69] This act was repealed and replaced by the Wildlife Act 1953, which reaffirmed the status of kererū as a protected species and outlawed any taking of the birds.[69] In 1994, the New Zealand Conservation Authority published a discussion paper about allowing the harvest of various species protected under the Act, including the kererū.[70] It has been argued that preventing the customary harvests of taonga such as kererū is in-part degrading or facilitating the loss of mātauranga (traditional knowledge) among Māori.[54] Furthermore, some argue that because the Treaty of Waitangi guarantees tangata whenua possession of taonga such as kererū, it therefore guarantees their right to harvest those taonga.[71] Currently, customary use of kererū is restricted to the use of feathers and bones obtained from dead birds collected by the Department of Conservation.[72]

Planet named for the kererū[]

In 2019 the exoplanet originally named HD 137388 b was renamed in honour of the kererū.[73]

Photo gallery[]

  • Kererū
  • J2A7159.jpg
  • Kereru001.jpg
  • New Zealand Kereru in the Sunlight.jpg
  • Kereru perched on thin branch.jpg
  • New Zealand Pigeon Southstar 01.jpg

See also[]

References[]

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