Extended-protected article

Line of Control

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Coordinates: 34°56′N 76°46′E / 34.933°N 76.767°E / 34.933; 76.767

Line of Control
Kashmir Region November 2019.jpg
Political map of the Kashmir region showing the Line of Control (LoC)
Characteristics
EntitiesPakistan Pakistan India India
Length740 km (460 mi)[1] to 776 km (482 mi)[2][a]
History
Established2 July 1972
Resulting from the ceasefire of 17 December 1971 and after ratification of the Shimla Treaty
TreatiesSimla Agreement
United Nations map of the Line of Control. The LoC is not defined near Siachen Glacier.

The Line of Control (LoC) is a military control line between the Indian and Pakistani controlled parts of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir—a line which does not constitute a legally recognized international boundary, but serves as the de facto border. It was established as part of the Simla Agreement at the end of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, when the two nations agreed to rename the ceasefire line as "Line of Control" and pledged to respect it without prejudice to their respective positions.[4] The line is roughly the same as the original cease-fire line of 1949 except for minor details.

The part of the former princely state that is under Indian control is divided into the union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh, while the Pakistani-controlled part is divided into Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan. The northernmost point of the Line of Control is known as NJ9842, beyond which lies the Siachen Glacier, which became a bone of contention in 1984. To the south of the Line of Control, (Sangam, Chenab River, Akhnoor), lies the border between Pakistani Punjab and the Jammu province, which has an ambiguous status: India regarding it as "international boundary" and Pakistan calling it a "working border".[5]

Another ceasefire line separates the Indian-controlled state of Jammu and Kashmir from the Chinese-controlled area known as Aksai Chin. Lying further to the east, it is known as the Line of Actual Control (LAC).[6]

Background

Main article: Kashmir conflict

After the partition of India, the present day India and Pakistan contested the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir – India by virtue of the ruler's accession to the country and Pakistan by virtue of the state's Muslim majority population. The First Kashmir War in 1947 lasted more than a year, when a ceasefire was accepted through the UN mediation. A ceasefire line was agreed by the two sides.[7]

After another Kashmir War in 1965, and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 (which saw Bangladesh become independent), only minor modifications had been effected in the original ceasefire line. In the ensuing Simla Agreement in 1972, the two countries agreed to convert the ceasefire line into a "Line of Control" and observe it as a de facto border that should not be violated by armed action. The agreement declared that "neither side shall seek to alter it unilaterally, irrespective of mutual differences and legal interpretations".[8][9] The United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) had the role of investigating ceasefire violations (CFV's), however their role decreased following 1971.[10] In 2000, US President Bill Clinton has referred to the Indian subcontinent and the Kashmir Line of Control, in particular, as one of the most dangerous places in the world.[11][12]

Characteristics

Terrain

The LOC from Kargil to Gurez consists of mountain passes and valleys with small streams and rivers.[13] The area up to around 14,000 is wooded while the peaks rise higher.[13] Winter is snowy while summers are mild. From Gurez to Akhnoor, the area is mountainous and hilly respectively. The area is generally forested. There are tracks and minor roads connecting settlements.[13] The mix of flora and elevation affects visibility and line of sight significantly.[14]

Ceasefire violations

In 2018, the Indian side of the LOC was manned by two corps and a number of battalions of the Border Security Force.[15] The Pakistani side was manned by the Rawalpindi Corps.[15] Ceasefire violations (CFV's) are initiated and committed by both sides and show a symmetry.[16][17] Response for a CFV at one location can be responded to by firing at an entirely different location.[18] Weapons used on the LOC include small arms, rocket-propelled grenades, recoilless rifles, mortars, automatic grenade launchers, rocket launchers and a number of other direct and indirect weaponry.[19] Sniper firing along the LOC killed 27 Pakistani and 7 Indian seven soldiers in 2017.[20] Military personnel on both sides risk getting shot by snipers in moving vehicles, through bunker peepholes and also during meals.[21]

The civilian population at the LOC, at some points ahead of the forward most post, has complicated the situation.[22] Shelling and firing by both sides along the LOC has resulted in civilian deaths.[23][24] In the first quarter of 2018, 25 Pakistani and 13 Indian civilians lost their lives in cross-LOC firing.[25] Bunkers have been constructed for these civilians populations for protection during periods of CFV's.[26] India and Pakistan usually only report on casualties on their own sides of the LOC,[27] with the media blaming the other side for the firing and each side claiming an adequate retaliation.[28]

According to Happymon Jacob, reasons for CFVs along the LOC include[29] operational reasons (defence construction such as observation facilities, the rule of the gun, lack of bilateral mechanisms for border management, personality traits and emotional state of soldiers and commanders),[30] politico-strategic reasons,[31] proportional response (land grab, sniping triggered, I am better than you, revenge firing),[32] accidental CFVs (civilian related, lack of clarity where the line is)[33] and other reasons (such as testing the new boys, honour, prestige and humiliation, fun, gamesmanship).[34] Jacob ranks operational reasons as the main cause for CFVs followed by retributive reasons and politico-strategic reasons .[29]

Landmines and IEDs

Mines have been laid across the India-Pakistan border and LOC in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 2001.[35] The small stretch of land between the rows of fencing is mined with thousands of landmines.[36] During the 2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff thousands of acres of land along the LOC was mined.[37] Both civilians and military personnel on both sides have died in mine and improvised explosive device (IED) related blasts, and many more injured.[37] Between January 2000 to April 2002, 138 military personnel were killed on the Indian side.[37]

Posts and bunkers

Reinforced sandbagged and concrete posts and bunkers are among the first line of defence along the LOC.[38][39] Armed soldiers man these positions with enough supplies for at least a week.[40] The posts and bunkers allow soldiers to sleep, cook, and keep a watch on enemy positions round the clock.[40] Some posts are located in remote locations. Animals are sometimes used to assist in transporting loads, and at some posts animals are reared.[40] The living quarters and the forward facing bunker are located at some distance apart.[41] The location of some posts do not follow any pre-ordained plan, rather they are in locations as per the First Kashmir War and the following cease-fire line, and then the minor adjustments that were made in 1972.[42]

Indian LoC fencing

Indian fencing relative to the zero line, villages and posts/bunkers along the LOC.

India constructed a 550 km (340 mi) barrier along the 740 km (460 mi)[1] – 776 km (482 mi)[2] Line of Control by 2004.[43][44] The fence generally remains about 150 yards on the Indian-controlled side. Its stated purpose is to exclude arms smuggling and infiltration by Pakistani-based separatist militants. The barrier, referred to as Anti-Infiltration Obstacle System (AIOS), consists of double-row of fencing and concertina wire 8–12 ft (2.4–3.7 m) in height, and is electrified and connected to a network of motion sensors, thermal imaging devices, lighting systems and alarms. They act as "fast alert signals" to the Indian troops who can be alerted and ambush the infiltrators trying to sneak in.[45][46]

The construction of the barrier began in the 1990s, but slowed in the early 2000s as hostilities between India and Pakistan increased. After a November 2003 ceasefire agreement, building resumed and was completed in late 2004. LoC fencing was completed in Kashmir Valley and Jammu region on 30 September 2004.[44] According to Indian military sources, the fence has reduced the numbers of militants who routinely cross into the Indian side of the disputed region by 80%.[47] In 2017, proposal for an upgraded smart fence on the Indian side were accepted.[46]

Border villages

A number of villages lie between the Indian fence and the zero line. Pakistan has not constructed a border fence, however a number of villages lie near to the zero line.[48] In Tithwal area, 13 villages are located in front of the Indian fence.[48] The total number between the fence and zero line on the Indian side is estimated to be 60 villages and at least 1,00,000 people spread over the districts adjacent to the LOC from of Rajouri to Bandipora.[49]

Infiltration and military cross-LOC movement

According to the Indian Ministry of Home Affairs, the number of "terrorists" attempting to infiltrate was 1504 in 2002.[50] Infiltration was one of India's main issue during the 2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff.[51] Infiltration has seen a general decrease over the years. Only a select number are successful; in 2016 the Ministry reported 105 successful infiltrations.[50] The Indian LOC fence has been constructed with a defensive mindset to counter infiltration.[52] The reduction in infiltration also points to a reduction in support for such activities in Pakistan.[53] During the 2019 Balakot airstrike, Indian planes crossed the LOC for the first time in 48 years.[54]

Crossing points

[Interactive fullscreen map]
LoC crossing points in blue Blue pog.svg. (Haji Peer/Silkote and Tatta Pani–Mendher crossing points approximate.)

Five crossing points were officially designated by Pakistan and India following the 2005 Kashmir earthquake— "Nauseri-Tithwal; Chakoti-Uri; Hajipur-Uri; Rawalakot-Poonch and Tattapani-Mendhar".[55][56][57]

According to Azad Jammu and Kashmir Cross LoC Travel and Trade Authority Act, 2016 the following crossing points are listed:[58][59]

  • Rawalakot–Poonch
  • Chakothi–Uri
  • Chaliana–Tithwal
  • Tatta Pani–Mendher
  • Haji Peer–Silli Kot

Trade points include: "Chakothi – Salamabad" and "Rawalakot (Titrinote) – Poonch (Chakkan-da-Bagh)". The ordinance had been passed in 2011.[60][61]

Between 2005 to 2017, and according to figures of the Travel and Trade Authority, Muzaffarabad, Indian Kashmiris crossing over to Pakistan is about 14,000 while about 22,000 have crossed over to the Indian side.[62] Crossing legally for civilians is not easy. A number of documents are required and verified by both countries including proof of family on the other side.[63] Even short term temporary crossing over invites interrogation by agencies.[63] Indian and Pakistani military use these crossing points for flag meetings and to exchange sweets during occasions and festivals.[64][65][66] On 21 October 2008, for the first time in 61 years, cross LOC trade was conducted between the two sides.[67] Trade across the LOC is barter trade.[68][69] In ten years, trade worth nearly PKR 11,446 crore or ₹5,000 crore (equivalent to ₹54 billion or US$750 million in 2019) has passed through the Chakothi – Salamabad crossing.[70]

Chilliana – Teetwal

August 2015
February 2018
Neelam Valley and the Chilliana – Teetwal border crossing.

The Teetwal crossing is across the Neelum River between Muzaffarabad and Kupwara. It is usually open only during the summer months,[71] and in contrast to the other two crossings is open only for the movement of people, not for trade.[59] The Tithwal bridge was first built in 1931 and has been rebuilt twice.[72]

Chakothi – Salamabad

Salamabad crossing point, or the Kamran Post, is located on the road between Chakothi and Uri in the Baramulla district of Jammu and Kashmir along the LoC.[73][74] It is a major route for cross LoC trade and travel. Banking facilities and a trade facilitation centres are being planned on the Indian side.[75] The name in English translates to "bridge of peace" is located in Uri. The bridge was rebuilt by the Indian Army after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake when a mountain on the Pakistani side had caved in.[76] This route was opened for trade in 2008 after a period of 61 years.[77] The Srinagar–Muzaffarabad Bus passes through this bridge on the LoC.[78]

Tetrinote – Chakan Da Bagh

A road connects Kotli and Tatrinote in Pakistan side of the LoC to Indian Poonch district of Jammu and Kashmir through Chakan Da Bagh crossing point.[74][79] It is a major route for cross LoC trade and travel. Banking facilities and a trade facilitation centres are being planned on the Indian side for the benefit of traders.[75]

Most of the flag meetings between Indian and Pakistani security forces are held here.[80]

Tattapani – Mendhar

The fourth border crossing between Tattapani and Mendhar was opened on 14 November 2005.[81]

Impact on civilians

The Line of Control divided Kashmir into two parts and closed the Jhelum valley route, the only entrance and exit of the Kashmir Valley from Pakistani Punjab. This territorial division, which to this day still exists, severed many villages and separated family members from each other.[82][83] Some families could see each other on both sides of the LOC in locations such as the Neelum river, but were not be able to meet.[84] Women on Pakistan's side on the LOC have been instrumental in certain locations at influencing infiltration and ceasefire violations; they have directly approached nearby Pakistani Army camps and insisted them to stop infiltration which in turn reduces India's cross LOC firing.[85]

In popular culture

Documentaries covering the LOC and related events include A journey through River Vitasta,[86] Raja Shabir Khan's Line of Control[87] and HistoryTV18's Kargil: Valour & Victory.[88] A number of Bollywood films on the 1999 Kargil conflict have involved depictions and scenes of the line of control including LOC: Kargil (2003),[89] Lakshya (2004)[90] and Gunjan Saxena: The Kargil Girl (2020).[91] Other Bollywood films include Uri: The Surgical Strike (2019)[92] and Bajrangi Bhaijaan (2015),[93] and streaming television shows such as Avrodh (2020).[94]

See also

References

Notes
  1. ^ 767 kilometers long according to Mahmud Ali Durrani (2001)[3]
Citations
  1. ^ Jump up to: a b "Clarifications on LoC". Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. 2 July 1972. Retrieved 7 September 2021. ...thus clearly delineating the entire stretch of Line of Control running through 740 Km starting from Sangam and ending at Pt NJ-9842.
  2. ^ Jump up to: a b Arora & Kumar 2016, p. 6.
  3. ^ Durrani 2001, p. 26.
  4. ^ Wirsing 1998, p. 13: 'With particular reference to Kashmir, they agreed that: ... in J&K, the Line of Control resulting from the ceasefire of December 17, 1971, shall be respected by both sides without prejudice to the recognised position of either side.'
  5. ^ Wirsing 1998, p. 10.
  6. ^ Wirsing 1998, p. 20.
  7. ^ Wirsing 1998, p. 4-7.
  8. ^ Wirsing 1998, p. 13.
  9. ^ "Simla Agreement". Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. 2 July 1972. Retrieved 27 September 2013.
  10. ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 110-111.
  11. ^ Marcus, Jonathan (23 March 2000). "Analysis: The world's most dangerous place?". BBC News. Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  12. ^ Krishnaswami, Sridhar (11 March 2000). "'Most dangerous place'". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  13. ^ Jump up to: a b c Durrani 2001, p. 27.
  14. ^ Durrani 2001, p. 39.
  15. ^ Jump up to: a b Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 109.
  16. ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 145.
  17. ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 86.
  18. ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 85.
  19. ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 18.
  20. ^ PTI (10 January 2018). "In Tactical Attacks, Army Killed 138 Pak Soldiers In 2017". NDTV. Retrieved 30 August 2021.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  21. ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 82.
  22. ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 113.
  23. ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 96, 100.
  24. ^ Siddiqui, Naveed (25 December 2017). "3 Pakistani soldiers martyred in 'unprovoked' cross-LoC firing by Indian army: ISPR". DAWN. Retrieved 30 August 2021.
  25. ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 91.
  26. ^ "J&K completes 84% of underground bunkers along LoC to protect residents during border shelling". ThePrint. PTI. 7 February 2021. Retrieved 30 August 2021.
  27. ^ Zakaria 2018, p. xxiv-xxv.
  28. ^ Zakaria 2018, p. 17-18.
  29. ^ Jump up to: a b Jacob, Line on Fire 2018, p. 152-153.
  30. ^ Jacob, Line on Fire 2018, p. 158-180.
  31. ^ Jacob, Line on Fire 2018, p. 181-187.
  32. ^ Jacob, Line on Fire 2018, p. 187-202.
  33. ^ Jacob, Line on Fire 2018, p. 207-212.
  34. ^ Jacob, Line on Fire 2018, p. 202-207.
  35. ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 97.
  36. ^ Umar, Baba (30 April 2011). "Mines of war maim innocents". Tehelka. Archived from the original on 17 October 2011. Retrieved 7 October 2011.
  37. ^ Jump up to: a b c Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 98.
  38. ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 148.
  39. ^ AP (3 April 2021). "Pakistan-India peace move silences deadly LoC". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 30 August 2021.
  40. ^ Jump up to: a b c Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 148-149.
  41. ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 150.
  42. ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 151.
  43. ^ Williams, Matthias (20 October 2008). Scrutton, Alistair (ed.). "FACTBOX-Line of control between India and Pakistan". Reuters. Retrieved 25 August 2021.
  44. ^ Jump up to: a b "LoC fencing completed: Mukherjee". The Times of India. 16 December 2004. Archived from the original on 22 October 2012.
  45. ^ Kumar, Vinay (1 February 2004). "LoC fencing in Jammu nearing completion". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 16 February 2004. Retrieved 23 June 2012.
  46. ^ Jump up to: a b Peri, Dinakar (30 April 2017). "Army set to install smart fence along LoC". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 31 July 2020.
  47. ^ Gilani, Iftikhar (4 March 2005). "Harsh weather likely to damage LoC fencing". Daily Times. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 31 July 2007.
  48. ^ Jump up to: a b Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 155.
  49. ^ Sharma, Ashutosh (1 April 2021). "Caught in the twilight zone between India and Pakistan, border villages struggle to survive". The Caravan. Retrieved 7 September 2021.
  50. ^ Jump up to: a b Jacob, Line on Fire 2018, p. 156-157.
  51. ^ "British and US surveillance may monitor Kashmir". The Guardian. 12 June 2002. Retrieved 2 September 2021.
  52. ^ Katoch, Dhruv C (Winter 2013). "Combatting Cross-Border Terrorism: Need for a Doctrinal Approach" (PDF). CLAWS Journal: 10.
  53. ^ Khan, Aarish Ullah (September 2005). "The Terrorist Threat and the Policy Response in Pakistan" (PDF). Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. p. 35. Retrieved 2 September 2021. SIPRI Policy Paper No. 11CS1 maint: postscript (link)
  54. ^ Gokhale, Nitin A. (27 September 2019). "1. Pulwama: Testing Modi's Resolve". Securing India the Modi Way: Balakot, Anti Satellite Missile Test and More. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-93-89449-27-3.
  55. ^ "Pakistan, India agree to open five LoC points". DAWN. 30 October 2005. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
  56. ^ Hussain, Aijaz (21 November 2005). "Kashmir earthquake: Opening of relief points along LoC becomes high point of Indo-Pak ties". India Today. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
  57. ^ "India, Pakistan to open military border". Al Jazeera. 30 October 2005. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
  58. ^ Azad Jammu and Kashmir Cross LoC Travel and Trade Authority Act, 2016. Act XVI of 2016. Law, Justice, Parliamentary Affairs and Human Rights Department, AJK Government. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
  59. ^ Jump up to: a b "Crossing Points". ajktata.gok.pk (AJK Travel and Trade Authority). Archived from the original on 15 June 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2019.
  60. ^ "The Azad Jammu and Kashmir Cross LoC Travel and Trade Authority Ordinance, 2011 (AJK Ordinance No. XXXII of 2011)". Azad Government of the State of Jammu and Kashmir, Law, Justice, Parliamentary Affairs and Human Rights Department. Retrieved 26 August 2021 – via nasirlawsite.com.CS1 maint: others (link)
  61. ^ Singh, Priyanka (1 January 2013). "Prospects of Travel and Trade across the India–Pakistan Line of Control (LoC)". International Studies. 50 (1–2): 71–91. doi:10.1177/0020881715605237. ISSN 0020-8817. S2CID 157985090.
  62. ^ Jacob, The Line of Control (2018), 114-115.
  63. ^ Jump up to: a b Zakaria 2018, p. 71.
  64. ^ "Indian,Pakistani troops exchange sweets along LoC in Kashmir on Pak's I-Day". Business Standard India. PTI. 14 August 2021. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
  65. ^ "India, Pakistan forces exchange Eid sweets for first time since Pulwama". The Times of India. 22 June 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
  66. ^ Bhalla, Abhishek (26 March 2021). "India, Pakistan hold brigade commanders-level meet to discuss peace at LoC". India Today. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
  67. ^ Hafeez 2014, p. 80.
  68. ^ Naseem, Ishfaq (11 January 2017). "Kashmir's Cross-Border Barter Trade". The Diplomat. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  69. ^ Taneja, Nisha; Bimal, Samridhi (2015). "Revisiting India Pakistan Cross-LoC Trade". Economic and Political Weekly. 50 (6): 21–23. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 24481356 – via JSTOR. Two key features form the core of the LOC trading arrangement: (i) barter exchange, and (ii) zero customs duty.
  70. ^ Ehsan, Mir (29 May 2018). "Border business: Where Kashmir unites India, Pakistan via trade". Hindustan Times. Salamadad (Uri). Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  71. ^ Iqbal, Mir (3 November 2016). "Teetwal LoC crossing point reopens after 3 months". Greater Kashmir. Archived from the original on 7 November 2016. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
  72. ^ Philip, Snehesh Alex (16 October 2020). "A shut LoC bridge, and a Kashmir village living under the shadow of Pakistani snipers". ThePrint. Retrieved 27 August 2021.
  73. ^ The New Humanitarian (10 November 2005). "Pakistan: Second border crossing-point opens to allow relief from India". ReliefWeb. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Archived from the original on 26 August 2021. Retrieved 26 August 2021.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
  74. ^ Jump up to: a b "Jammu and Kashmir: Goods over Rs 3,432 crore traded via two LoC points in 3 years". Economic Times. PTI. 9 January 2018. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
  75. ^ Jump up to: a b "Cross-LoC trade at Rs 2,800 crore in last three years". Economic Times. PTI. 13 June 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
  76. ^ "J&K CM inaugurates rebuilt Aman Setu". Hindustan Times. IANS. 21 February 2008. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
  77. ^ Ramasubbu, Krishnamurthy (21 October 2008). "Trucks start rolling, duty-free commerce across LoC opens". Livemint. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
  78. ^ "Re-erected Kaman Aman Setu will be inaugurated on Monday". Outlook. PTI. 19 February 2006. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
  79. ^ "Chakan-Da-Bagh in Poonch". Zee News. 14 August 2014. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013.
  80. ^ "India, Pakistan hold flag meeting". The Hindu. 23 August 2017. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
  81. ^ "Fourth Kashmir crossing opens". DAWN. 15 November 2005. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
  82. ^ Ranjan Kumar Singh, Sarhad: Zero Mile, (Hindi), Parijat Prakashan, ISBN 81-903561-0-0
  83. ^ Women in Security, Conflict Management, a Peace (Program) (2008). Closer to ourselves: stories from the journey towards peace in South Asia. WISCOMP, Foundation for Universal Responsibility of His Holiness the Dalai Lama. p. 75. Retrieved 19 June 2013.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  84. ^ Zakaria 2018, p. 84.
  85. ^ Zakaria 2018, p. 107-109.
  86. ^ "Film-making beyond borders: The process is the message". Conciliation Resources. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  87. ^ "Line of Control". DMZ International Documentary Film Festival. 2016. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  88. ^ "HistoryTV18 brings viewers true stories of courage and sacrifice in the Kargil War". Adgully.com. 23 January 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  89. ^ Budha 2012, p. 8.
  90. ^ Dsouza, Vinod (17 August 2018). "Atal Bihari Vajpayee's Tenure As PM Inspired Hrithik Roshan's Lakshya & John Abraham's Parmanu". Filmibeat. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  91. ^ "Gunjan Saxena: India female pilot's war biopic flies into a row". BBC News. 19 August 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  92. ^ Mishra, Nivedita (15 August 2019). "Independence Day 2019: How Uri The Surgical Strike changed the way Indian patriotic films are made". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  93. ^ Chakravarty, Ipsita (27 July 2015). "How Bajrangi Bhaijaan brought peace to the LoC and solved the Kashmir issue". DAWN. Scroll.in. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
  94. ^ Ramnath, Nandini (31 July 2020). "'Avrodh' review: Show about 2016 surgical strike goes beyond Line of Control in more ways than one". Scroll.in. Retrieved 3 September 2021.
Bibliography

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