List of string figures

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The following is a list of string figures, various figures which can be made using a loop of string, and which occur in games such as cat's cradle. Most of the titles are translations and/or descriptions.

Format[]

Explanation of the format of these listings:

  • "name 1" (location of name), [specific citation] "name 2" (location 2): opening position[, extension, notes] [general citation]
    • subsequent figures

List[]

"Opening A", seen from below
"Two Diamonds"
Heraklas' "Plinthios Brokhos" made in a doubled cord. Resembles "A Hole in the Tree" with different crossings.
"Cradle", the first (and opening) position of Cat's cradle
"Soldier's Bed" from Cat's cradle
"Candles" from Cat's cradle
"Diamonds" from Cat's cradle
"Cat's Eye" from Cat's cradle
"Fish in a Dish" from Cat's cradle
"Grandfather Clock" from Cat's cradle
Women's string-figure depicting "menstrual blood of three women", illustrating the Yolngu people's tribal mythology of menstrual synchrony.[1]
Inuit string figures[2] reindeer, wolf, and pig[3]
  • "Ace of Diamonds" (Hawaii: "E-ke-ma-nu"): position 1, similar to Cat's cradle's "Mattress"[4][5]
    • "Big Star" (Navajo)[4]
  • "Ace of Hearts" (Hawaii: "E-ke-pe-ki"): ???[5]
  • "Ace of Spades" (Hawaii: "E-ke-ha-ka"): ???[5]
  • "Andromeda Galaxy" (invented): opening A[6]
  • "Antares" (Nauru): opening A[7]
  • "Apache Door" (Apache),[8] "Pancho" (Navajo),[8] "Sling" (Zuni),[8] "Tent Door"/"String Bag"/"Horde"/"Poncho"/"Streamers"/"Fish Net"[9] (N. America): opening A,[10] (Navajo): position 1[11]
  • "Apache Teepee" (Apache): nonstandard[12]
  • "Arms" (Nunivak Inuit: "moguk"): ???[13]
  • "Arrow" (Navajo: "Ka"): opening A[14]
  • "Baby Being Born" (Wadaman): position 1[15]
  • "Bagobo Diamonds" (Bagobo, also Linao Moros): opening A[16]
  • "Bagobo Two Diamonds" (Bagobo): opening A[16]
  • "Bear's Den" (Kwakiutl):[17]
    • "Bear" (Kwakiutl), "Dog" (N. Alaska, W. Greenland), "Fox" (Mackenzie, W. Copper, Netsilik, Iglulik)[18]
      • "Porcupine" (Kwakiutl), "Man Kneeling" (Caribou), "Hunter Approaching a Seal on Ice" (Netsilik)[19]
      • "Goose" (Kwakiutl)[17]
  • "Bird" (Papua): position 1[20]
  • "Bird House" (Hawaii: "A-na-ma-nu"): ???[5]
  • "Bird's Nest" (Navajo): position 1[21]
  • "Bow" (Navajo: "Atl-ti"): Navajo opening[22]
  • "Breastbone and Ribs" (Inuit: "Grut"): ribcage opening[23]
  • "Breasts" (Hawaii: "Wai-u-la-wa"): ???[5]
  • "Brush House" (Zuni: "Pi-cho-wai, ham-pun-nai"), "Hut" (Pueblo: "Nathu"), (Klamath): nonstandard[24]
    • "Six-Pointed Star": continuation[24]
  • "Butterfly" (Navajo: "Ga-lo-ki/'Ga-hi-ki"): Navajo opening[25][26]
  • "Butterfly" (Nauru: "Ijewaioi"): ???[27]
  • "Candle Thief" (England, Ireland, Germany): nonstandard[28]
  • "Canoe with Two Masts" (Torres Straits: "Nar"): opening A, requires two people or use of a toe[29]
  • "Canoe with Two Sails" (Gilbert Islands, chant: Te Wa Ma le-Na): opening A[30]
  • "Caribou" (Cumberland Sound Inuit: "Tuktuqdjung"),[31] "Caribou" (St. Michael Island Inuit: "tuk-tuk"):[13] opening A
  • "Caroline Islands Catch" (Ngatik): opening A, similar to "King Fish"[32]
  • "Caroline Islands Diamonds" (Ngatik): nonstandard, Caroline extension[33]
  • "Carrying Bundles of Wood" (Navajo): opening A[34]
  • "Casting the Fish-Spear" (Torres Straits): opening A,[35] similar to "Fish-Spear"
  • "Catching a Cockroach" (Samoa): nonstandard[36]
  • Cat's cradle (Europe),[37] game of string (Russia),[38] kang sok (Southern China: "well rope"),[39] Jack in the Pulpit[40] (regional U.S.): Cradle
    • 1: "Cradle": around wrists[37][41]
    • 2: "Soldier's Bed",[37] "Mattress"[42]
    • 3: "Candles",[37] "Calm Sea"[42]
    • 4: "Manger",[37] "Upturned Cradle"[42]
    • End: "Saw"[37]
    • 5 & 12: "Diamonds",[37] Carpet, (Russia)[38] "Mattress Turned Over"[42]
    • 6: "Cat's Eye"[37][42]
    • 7: "Fish in a Dish",[37] "Pig on Pegs"[42]
    • 10: "Hand Drum"/"Scraggly"[37]
    • End: "Two Royal Crowns"/"Grandfather Clock"[37]
    • End: "Lucky Tea Kettle"[37]
  • "Chicken Bum" (Guianas, Peru, Sierra Leone), "Wink" (Hawaii): nonstandard[43]
  • "Chochaío" (Palau: "Bird"): opening B[44]
  • "Circles and Triangles" (Ngatik: Bur-bur-ani jau): opening A[45]
  • "Clothes Line" (Cape Prince of Wales Inuit: "iniarat"): ???[13]
  • "Cobweb" (Whanganui): position 1[46]
  • "Coconut Net" (Gilbert Islands: "Teibu Te Tatai"): around wrists[47]
  • "Coral" (Uap: "Melang"): opening A, Caroline extension[48]
    • "Variation of Coral" (invented)[49]
  • "Cup and Saucer" (Europe),[50][51] "Sake Cup"/"House" (Japan),[50] "Canoe with Outrigger" (New Caledonia[51]),[50] "Skinning the Bison"/"Dressing a Skin"[52] (Salish):[51] opening A
    • "Owl's Eyes" (Europe): opening A[53]
  • "Cutting the Hand" (Inuit): opening A[54]
  • "Dancer" (Caroline and Loyalty Islands): position 1[55]
  • "Diadem",[56] "Jacob's Ladder" (Europe),[56][57] "Osage Diamonds" (Osage),[56][57][58] "Fence"/"Ladder" (Irish),[58] "Calabesh Net" (Africa),[57] "Le pont de Quebec"[57] (Quebec, "Quebec Bridge"): opening A
    • "Cat's Whiskers" (Europe): continuation[57]
    • "Eiffel Tower" (Europe): continuation[57]
    • "Witch's Hat" (Europe): continuation[57]
    • "King's Crown" (Germany): variation[59]
  • "Dog On a Leash" (Nunivak Island Inuit: "kaymuchta"): ???[13]
  • "Dog with Large Ears" (Copper Inuit): nonstandard[60]
  • "Dravidian Trick" (Dravidian):[61]
  • "Drunken Tree" (Eastern Toba): opening A[62]
  • "Eel" (Papua), "Catching Crabs" (Gilbert Islands): nonstandard[63]
  • "Egarawinago" (Nauru: "Lady of Quality"): ???[27]
  • "Egona and Egameang Sitting On a Stone" (Nauru): ???[27]
  • "Erupting Volcano" (Mapuche): opening A[64]
  • "Fighting Head-hunters" (Torres Straits: Ares, or Murray and Duaur men fighting): opening A[65]
  • "Find the Owl" (Navajo): opening A[34]
  • "Flint and Steel" (Yap: "Nifi")/"Origin of Fire" (Torres Straits),[66] "Chellaba" (Africa: "turn over"),[67] "Tinder-box"[68] (Caroline Islands): position 1
  • "Finger Catch" (Chippewa): nonstandard[69]
  • "Fire Drill" (Kwakiutl): opening B[70]
  • "Fish" (???): Murray opening[71]
  • "Fish-Spear" (Torres Straits: "Baur"),[73][74][75] "Pitching a Tent" (Salish, B.C.),[74][75] "Sea-Egg (Echinus) Spear" (Clayoquaht),[75] "Duck Spear" (Alaska),[74] "Coconut Palm Tree" (Africa),[74] "Parachute" (Europe),[76] "Witches Broom"[74] (Europe): position 1,[74][75] similar to "Hogan" but with three lines, and similar to "Casting the Fish-Spear"
  • "Floor Mat" (Nauru): ???[27]
  • "Flower" (Navajo): position 1[77]
  • "Fly"/"Mosquito"/"Smashing a Coconut"/"Flying Fox" (Solomon Islands[78]): nonstandard[79]
  • "Fly On the Nose" (Torres Straits: "Buli"): nonstandard, trick[80]
  • "Flying Bird" (South Sea Islands): position 1[81]
  • "Four Boys Hand-in-Hand" (Australia): Murray opening[47]
  • "Fox and Whale" (King Island Inuit: "achvuk-tezeuk"):[13] position 1[82]
  • "Ghost Dance" (New Guinea): two person[83]
  • "Gated Well"/"Well" (South Sea Islands),[84] "Velovelo" (Fiji: "Dugout Canoe"), "Ti Meta" (Murray Island: "Ti Bird's Nest"),[85] "Basket"/"Wooden Food Bowl" (???): opening A[86]
    • "Fence Around the Well": continuation[86] (Lifu: Sihnag)[87]
    • "Crab" (Kiwai Island: "Kokowa"): continuation[88]
      • "Variation of the Crab" (invented)[89]
  • "Giraffe Eating Grass" (Japan): opening A, variation of "Two Brown Bears"[90]
  • "Ha-le-ku-mu-ma-ka-a" (Hawaii): ???[5]
  • "Hammock" (Muslim): position 1[91]
  • "Hammock [Weaving]" (N. or S. America): two person[92]
  • "'Hanging'" (Philippines & Yap): nonstandard, trick[93]
  • "Hare" (Inuit: "Ukaliaqdjung"): ???[94]
  • "Hawk" (Wardaman): opening A, two people[95]
  • "Headhunters" (Murray island): opening A[96]
  • "Hill and Two Ponds" (Inuit: "Qaqaqdjung Sesinging"): ???[94]
  • "Hogan" (Navajo): nonstandard,[97] "Parachute" with four lines
  • "House" (Australia): around wrists, two people[98]
  • "House" (Yap: "Naun", Maori, North Queensland): opening A, two people[99]
  • "Hull of a Ship" (Nauru: "Deimano"):[27]
  • "Hunter Stalking a Seal" (Inuit): position 1[100]
  • "Ibunemun" (Nauru: "Man"): ???[27]
  • "Iburenio" (Nauru: a growth in the tomana tree): opening A[55]
  • "Japanese Butterfly" (Japan): nonstandard[101][102]
  • "Kani Mumun" (Gilbert Islands: 'dispersing clouds' or 'flight of the conquered'): position 1[103]
  • "King Fish" (Murray Island: "Geigi", Mabuiag: "Dangal"[Dugong/Sea-cow]), "Kamo" (Torres Straits: "The Thief"):[104] opening A,[105] similar to "Caroline Islands Catch"
  • "King's Throne"/"The Bed" (Gilbert Islands: Bao-n te nea): opening A[106]
  • "Kiwi" (Maori): opening A[107]
  • "Ko-he" (Hawaii): ???[5]
  • "Laia Flower"/"Lotus Flower (New Hebrides): opening A[108][109]
  • "Lairo" (Fiji: "Land Crab"): position 1 variant[110]
  • "Lake Fish" (Anvik Inuit: "nanvumcheseah"): ???[13]
  • "Leashing/Lines of Lochiel's Dogs"[111] (Scotland, Ireland, England),[112] "Raven's Feet"/"Crow's Feet" (Tanana Inuit),[13] "Ptarmigan Feet"/"Crows' Feet"[111] (N. America),[112] "Cock's Feet" (France),[112] "Chicken Toes"[111]/"Wooden Spoon" (Africa: "Umuzwa"),[112] "Emus'/Cockerels' Feet" (???),[111] "Two Tents" (???),[111] "Spade" (New Zealand),[113] "Ducks' Feet" (Scotland): opening A, nearly identical to "Two Hogans"[112]
  • "Lightning" (Navajo: "Atsinil-klish", Tewa: "Vo-pi-ri-dai"): Navajo opening[116][117][118]
  • "Little Boat"/"Two Boats" (King Island Inuit: "kayak"/"malruk-kayak"): ???[13]
  • "Little Boy Carrying Wood" (Klamath): Navajo opening[119]
  • "Little Fishes" (Murray Island: "Tup"): Navajo opening[120]
  • "Little Fish That Hides in the Mud" (Klamath): nonstandard[121]
  • "Little Girl with Pigtails" (Japan): opening A[122]
  • "Lizard" (Navajo: Nashoi-dichizhi): Navajo opening[123][124]
  • "Lozenge" (invented): opening A[125]
  • "Ma-ka-pe-na" (Hawaii): ???[5]
  • "Man" (Navajo: "Diné"): opening A, resembles "Coral"[126]
  • "Man Climbing a Tree" (Australia): opening A[127]
  • "Man in a Hammock" (???): around wrists[128]
  • "Man on/and a Bed" (Torres Straits: "Le Sik"): opening A[129][130]
    • "Hoochie Koochie Man" (Europe)[130]
  • "Many Stars"[131]/"Starry Sky"[132] (Navajo: "Son-tlani"): opening A[133]
    • "Firmament": two people[134]
  • "Net" (Hawaii: "U-pe-na"): ???[5]
  • "New Mittens" (Tanana: "ajakailaiguk"): ???[13]
  • "O-ko-le-a-mo" (Hawaii): ???[5]
  • "One Chief" (Yap: "Pilun"): position 1, Caroline extension[135]
    • "Owl" 1 ("Nas-ja"): variation[133]
    • "Owl" 2: variation[136]
    • "Owl" 3: variation[136]
    • "Seven Stars" ("Dil-ye-he"[Pleiades]): variation[137]
    • "Two-Horned Star"[Son-bi-tere]/"Cow's Head": variation[138]
    • "Two Coyotes" ("Ma-i-at-sani-il-watli"): variation[138]
    • "Big Star": variation[138]
    • "North Star" ("Tsun-tsi"): variation[137]
    • "Carrying Wood" ("Chiz-jǒ-yĕt-lĭ"): variation[133]
    • "Owl's Net": variation[139]
  • "M" (Omaha): opening A[140]
  • "Maui's Lasso" (Hawaii): opening A[141]
  • "Melon Rind" (Papuan, Bamu River): position 1[142]
  • "Moe Hora Hia" (Tuamotus: "Ghost's Path"): opening A[143]
  • "Monkey Bum"[144]/"Flying Parrot" ([British] Guiana), "Wink" (Hawaii): nonstandard[145]
  • "Moth" (Zulu), "Spectacles" (Europe): opening A[146][147]
  • "Mouse" (Murray Island: "Kebe Mokeis"), "Express Train" (Germany), (Inuit, N. & S. America, Japan, Philippines, Australia): nonstandard, "Probably the most widely distributed of all the string figures."[148][149]
  • "Mouth" (Topek Inuit: "Rote"),[150] "Trap" (Cape Prince of Wales Inuit: "keezook"):[13] Navajo opening
  • "Mrs. Crab" (South Pacific), "Elastic Band" (Japan), "Twitcher" (Hawaii): position 1[151]
  • "Mr. Spider" (Gilbert Islands): opening A[30]
  • Murray opening[152]/Index opening (technical): opening position
  • "Naio Tree" (Kauai and Niihau: False Sandalwood): position 1[153]
  • Navajo opening (Navajo), Opening B (technical):[154] opening position[117][155][115]
  • "Neneuri" (Gilbert Islands: maybe someone's name): opening A[142]
  • "Night"/"Darkness"[115] (Hawaii: "Po",[5] also Pacific, Japan, Africa, South America): opening A[156]
  • No Name (Ngatik): opening A[157]
  • "One Hogan" (Navajo): nonstandard[158]
  • Opening A[159][160][161]/Japanese opening[162] (technical: Inuit, N. & S. America, Papua[161]): position 1
  • "Open the Gate" (Hawaii), "Island Separated from Land" (Fiji), "Kokoko" (New Guinea: bird call): opening A[163]
  • "Osage Two Diamonds" (Osage): opening A[164][165]
  • "Owl" (Navajo: "Nasha"): position 1, similar to "Starry Night"[166]
  • "Palm Tree" (Torres Straits: "U"): opening A[167]
  • "Paths to the Well" (Gilbert Islands): opening A, "clearly similar to," "Iburenio"[47]
  • "Plinthios Brokhos" (Ancient Greece),[168][169][170] "Sun Clouded Over" (Australia),[171] "Giant Clam" (Fiji):[172] opening A
  • "Polar Bear" (North Alaskan Inuit): position 1, variant of "Swan"[173]
  • Pole Star (???): opening A[174]
  • "Porcupine" (Klamath), "Wolf"/"Wolverine" (Cape Prince of Wales: "koftsick"/"kulonik"),[13] "Fox" (???): opening A[175]
  • Position 1/First position[176] (technical): opening position[177][178]
  • Position 2 (technical): opening position[179]
  • "Post" (Hawaii: "Pou"): ???[5]
  • "Priestess" (Nauru: "Etaroking"): ???[27]
  • "Pu" (Hawaii): ???[5]
  • "Pump" (Hawaii: "Pau-ma-wai"): ???[5]
  • "Pygmy Diamonds" (Batwa): Navajo opening[180]
  • "Rabbit" (Klamath): opening A[139][181][182]
  • "Rabbit" (Anvik Inuit: "makadok"), "Bird On Eggs" (St. Michael Island): ???[13]
  • "Rain" (Nauru: "O-eron"): opening A[47]
  • "Rattlesnake and a Boy" (Klamath): opening A[183]
    • "Two Skunks": variation[183]
    • "Two Foxes": variation[183]
    • "Two Squirrels": variation[183]
  • "Rectangle" (???): position 1[4]
  • "Ribcage" (Alaska Inuit): ribcage opening[184]
  • Ribcage opening (technical): opening position[185]
  • "Salt Cave" (Hawaii): opening A, variation of "Fishnet"[186]
  • "Sandsnipe" (Kiribati): nonstandard[187]
  • "Saw" (Hawaii: "Pa-hi-o-lo"),[5] "Saw" (Scotland): "Cradle"[188]
  • "Sawing Together" (around the world),[189] "Saw Mill" (Ireland):[190] position 1/nonstandard, two people, trick
  • "Scarab" (invented): all moves but one taken from "Well", "Crab", and "Fence"[191]
  • "Seagull"/"Man Carrying a Kayak" (Nunivak Island Inuit: "tc-c-kyack"[13]): opening A[192]
  • "Sealskin Carrying-bag" (St. Michael Island Inuit: "aginuk"): ???[13]
    • "Kidneys" ("taktuk"): continuation[13]
  • "Sea-snake" (Murray Island: "Pagi"):[193]
  • "Seasnake" (Nauru: "Iiyanibongo"): ???[27]
  • "Second Worm" (Navajo): Navajo opening[194]
  • "See-saw" (Hawaii: "Ma-hi-ki"): ???[5]
  • "Seven Diamonds" (Brillo Nuevo): nonstandard[195]
  • "Sewing Machine" (Basel): "Cradle"[196]
  • "Ship" (King Island Inuit: "umiakbuk"): ???[13]
  • "Siberian House"[197][198]/"Two Brown Bears and Their Caves"[199] (Big Diomede Island Inuit):[13] opening A
    • "Two Inuit Running Away" ("mugalonik enuck okparuktuk")[13]
  • "Smith's Secret 1" (Europe): nonstandard[200]
  • "Smith's Secret 2" (Alaskan Inuit): nonstandard[201]
  • "Spectacles" (invented): opening A[202]
  • "Square" (invented): begins as does "Apache Door"[203]
  • "Stairs" (Cape Prince of Wales Inuit: "tutumukaligat"): ???[13]
  • "Star of David" (???): nonstandard, two people[204]
  • "Stickleback" (Guianas): nonstandard, two people[205]
  • "Storm Clouds" (Navajo): Navajo opening[206]
  • "Sun" (Nauru Island): opening A[207]
  • "Sun" (Klamath): opening A[139]
  • "Sunset" (Murray island: "Lem Baraigida"),[208] (Mabuiag: "Dògai", or "Star"): opening A, related to "Fighting Head-Hunters"[209]
  • "Swan" (Mackenzie Delta Inuit): position 1,[210] variant of "Polar Bear"
  • "Ta Ai" (Gilbert Islands: "Sun"): opening A[142]
  • "Tallow Dips" (Great Britain): nonstandard[211]
  • "Tao Ta 16" (Japan): opening A[212]
  • "Ten Men"[34] (Ngatik),[213] "Turtle" (Australia),[213] "White Betel Leaf"/"Leaves of the Bread-fruit Tree"[34] (Pacific): opening A
    • "Ten Men variation" variation[213]
    • "Second Variation of Ten Men" (invented)[214]
    • "Caroline Islands Triangles": variation[213]
    • "Carrying Money" (Uap: "Runi-ka-fei"): continuation[215]
    • "House of the Blos-Bird" (Ngatik: "Palngan-im-mun-blos"): variation[213]
  • "Threading a Closed Loop" (Omaha, Pawnee, Kwakiutl, Japan, Caroline Islands): nonstandard, trick[216]
  • "Three Stars" (Uap: "Dilipi-tuf"): opening A, Caroline extension[217]
  • "Thumb Catch[er]"[79] (Osage, England), "Bow-String" (Tanana[13]): opening A, trick[218]
  • "Tinamitto" (Nauru: "Dandy"): ???[27]
  • "Toad and a Man" (Kwakiutl): opening A[219]
  • "Torres Straits Lizard" (Murray Island: "Monan"), "Intestines of a Turtle" (Mabuiag: "Maita"): nonstandard, trick[220]
  • "Tortoise" (???): ribcage opening, two person[221]
  • "Tree Hole/Hole in the Tree"/"Sun"/"Moon"/"Female Sexual Organs" (Chama & Oceania): opening A[115]
  • "Tree with Roots and Branches" (Guiana): position 1[55]
  • "Trigger Fish" (Torres Straits: "Nageg"): "Well"[222]
  • "Turtle" (Japan): opening A[223]
  • "Turtle" (Yap): nonstandard, Caroline extension, resembles "Bagobo Diamonds"[224]
    • "Ten Times": continuation, any even number of times possible[224]
  • "Twin Stars" (Navajo: "Sono-tsihu")(Zuni): Navajo opening, closely resembles "Osage Two Diamonds"[225]
  • "Two Boys Fighting for an Arrow" (Klamath): opening A variation[226]
  • "Two Chiefs" (Yap: "Logaru-pilun"): opening A, Caroline extension[227]
  • "Two Coyotes" (Navajo): opening A[115]
    • "Cow's Head"/"Star with Two Horns" (Navajo)[166]
  • "Two Dolphins" (invented): opening A[49][166]
  • "Two Dragonflies" (Gilbert Islands: "U-oman ni keketi"): opening A[228]
  • "Two Elks" (Klamath): opening A[139]
  • "Two Hogans" (Navajo): opening A[229]
  • "Two Islands Joined by a Log" (Warrau): opening A[230]
  • "Two Islands Linked by a Bridge" (Warau, Guiana): opening A[228]
  • "Two Little Boys Running Away" (Klamath): Navajo opening[231]
  • "Two Mountains and a Stream" (St. Michael Island Inuit: "tituchtak"): ???[13]
  • "Two Ptarmigans" (Cape Prince of Wales Inuit: "mugalonik-okhozgiuk"): ???[13]
  • "Two Stars" (Navajo): opening A[232]
  • "Two Wells" (Gilbert Islands: "Tan iti ran"): around wrists[228]
  • "Two Women" (Nauru: "Echeog and Edawaroi"): ???[27]
  • "Ussugdjung" (Cumberland Sound Inuit: "circle" or "sun"): position 1[115][233]
  • "W" (Omaha): opening A[234]
  • "Wanderer" (invented): nonstandard[235]
  • "What Will You Do?" (Kwakiutl), "Old Woman" (Bella Coola): opening B[236]
  • "Wheelbarrow" (invented): Navajo opening[155]
  • "[White] Man in a Bed" (N. America): opening A[237]
  • "[White Man's] Camp Bed"/"Fetish Man's Breastplate"/"Sumbo" (central Africa: "Fishing Net"): nonstandard[238]
  • "Winking Eye" (Kauai): non-standard[239]
  • "Wolf" (Inuit: "Amaroqdjung"): ???[94]
  • "Woman" (Nauru: "Egattamma"): ???[27]
  • "Woman Who Walks a Lot" (N. New Guinea): opening A[240]
  • "Women of Rank" (Nauru: "Etima and Etowa"; Nauru women of rank): ???[27]
  • "Worm" (Navajo): Navajo opening[241]
  • "Would You Like a Sweet/Yam?" (northern Australia),[242] "Will You Have a Yam?"/"Food" (Torres Straits: "Lewer"):[243] position 1
  • "Yam Thief"/"Snake in the Trees" (South America), "Mouse" (Inuit): nonstandard[244]

See also[]

  • Notable string scholars

References[]

The list includes all figures from Elffers & Schuyt (1979), Gryski (1983) and (1985), ISFA (1999), and Jayne (1962).

  1. ^ Knight, C. (1995). Blood Relations: Menstruation and the Origins of Culture. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 445. Figure re-drawn after McCarthy, F. D. (1960). "The string figures of Yirrkalla". In Mountford, C. P. (ed.). Records of the American-Australian Scientific Expedition in Arnhem Land. Anthropology and Nutrition. 2. Melbourne University Press. pp. 415–513 [466].
  2. ^ Heinrich Klutschak (1881). Als Eskimo unter den Eskimos. Vienna.
  3. ^ Jayne, Caroline Furness (1906/1962), String Figures and How to Make Them, p.xix. ISBN 0-486-20152-X. Collected by Klutschak from old men in King William Land.
  4. ^ Jump up to: a b c Elffers, Joost and Schuyt, Michael (1979). Cat's Cradle and Other String Figures, p.196. Translation of Das Hexenspiel (1978). ISBN 0140052011.
  5. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Jayne (1962), p.372-75. Collected by Stewart Culin from four Hawaiian sailors, Aka (Kamehameha), Daviese Kahimoku, Welakahao, and Hale Paka (Harry Park), from Honolulu (????).
  6. ^ International String Figure Association (ISFA) (1996/1999). Fascinating String Figures, p.75. ISBN 0486404005. Invented by Felix Paturi in Rodenbach, Germany.
  7. ^ "String Figure of the Month 2013: Antares", ISFA.org. Collected by Honor Maude in Nauru.
  8. ^ Jump up to: a b c Jayne (1962), p.12. Collected by Jayne from a girl in New Mexico (1904).
  9. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.88.
  10. ^ Jayne (1906), p.12-15.
  11. ^ Gryski, Camilla (1983). Cat's Cradle, Owl's Eyes: A Book of String Games, p.58. ISBN 0-688-03941-3.
  12. ^ Jayne (1962), p.246. Collected by Jayne from an Apache woman, Darcia Tafoya, in Jicarilla, New Mexico (1904).
  13. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Jayne (1962), p.359-66. Inuit figures with no instructions collected by Dr. George B. Gordon in Alaska on an expedition for the Philadelphia Free Museum of Science and Art (????).
  14. ^ Jayne (1962), p.133. Collected by Jayne from Zah Tso & sister (1904).
  15. ^ ISFA (1999), p.21. Collected by Daniel Sutherland Davidson in Northern Australia (????).
  16. ^ Jump up to: a b Jayne (1962), p.43 & 46. Collected by Jayne from a, "young man," in the Vietnamese section at the St. Louis Expo (1904).
  17. ^ Jump up to: a b Averkieva, Julia and Sherman, Mark (1992). Kwakiutl String Figures, p.12. ISBN 029597172X.
  18. ^ Averkieva & Sherman (1992), p.13 and 10.
  19. ^ Averkieva & Sherman (1992), p.11.
  20. ^ Gryski (1983), p.52.
  21. ^ Jayne (1962), p.314. Collected by Jayne from Tso et al (1904).
  22. ^ Jayne (1962), p.212. Collected by Jayne from Tso and sister (1904).
  23. ^ Jayne (1962), p.. Collected by Jayne from Chief Zaroff (1904).
  24. ^ Jump up to: a b Jayne (1962), p.301 & 307. Collected by John L. Cox in Hampton, Virginia from a Pueblo Indian, Antonio Abeita, from Isleta, New Mexico and from Emma Jackson (????), also Culin.
  25. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.84.
  26. ^ Jayne (1962), p.219. Collected by Jayne from Tso et. al. (1904).
  27. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Jayne (1962), p.367-71. Nauru figures without instructions given to Furness as prepared mounted illustrations by E. Stephen in Pleasant Island (????).
  28. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.136. With story.
  29. ^ Jayne (1962), p.195. Collected by Haddon, published first by Jayne.
  30. ^ Jump up to: a b Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.185.
  31. ^ Jayne (1962), p.124. Collected by Dr. Boas in Baffin Land.
  32. ^ Jayne (1962), p.142. Collected by W.H. Furness from Emily on their way to the Caroline Islands (1902).
  33. ^ Jayne (1962), p.260. Collected by Furness from a woman, Emily, in the Caroline Islands (????).
  34. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.200.
  35. ^ Jayne (1962), p.131. Collected but not published by Haddon.
  36. ^ ISFA (1999), p.27. Collected by Peter H. Buck in the South Pacific (????).
  37. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Gryski (1983), p.63.
  38. ^ Jump up to: a b Buchanan, Andrea J. and Peskowitz, Miriam (2007). The Daring Book for Girls, p.277. ISBN 978-0-06-147257-2.
  39. ^ Jayne, C. F. (1906/1962), p.324.
  40. ^ Anderson, John P. (2010). Joyce's Finnegans Wake: The Curse of Kabbalah, Volume 4, p.301. ISBN 978-1-59942-810-9.
  41. ^ Elffers and Schuyt (1979), p.27.
  42. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.100.
  43. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.34.
  44. ^ "String Figure of the Month 2013: Chochaio Bird", ISFA.org. Collected by Father Raymund (????).
  45. ^ Jayne (1962), p.146. Collected by Furness from Emily on their way to the Caroline Islands (1902).
  46. ^ ISFA (1999), p.24. Collected by Johannes Carl Andersen in New Zealand (????).
  47. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.204.
  48. ^ Jayne (1962), p.176. Collected by Furness, from Lemet, a Uap Mispil, in Dulukan (????).
  49. ^ Jump up to: a b Jayne (1962), p.393.
  50. ^ Jump up to: a b c Gryski (1983), p.18.
  51. ^ Jump up to: a b c Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.31.
  52. ^ Jayne (1962), p.30. Collected by Harlan I. Smith in Thompson River B.C. on the Jesup North Pacific Expedition (1897–1902). Upside down compared to "Cup and Saucer".
  53. ^ Gryski (1983), p.20.
  54. ^ Gryski (1983), p.28.
  55. ^ Jump up to: a b c Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.182.
  56. ^ Jump up to: a b c Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.148.
  57. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Gryski (1983), p.40.
  58. ^ Jump up to: a b Jayne (1962), p.24. Collected by Jayne in Pawhuska (1904), also exists in Hawaii.
  59. ^ "String Figure of the Month 2013: King's Crown", ISFA.org. Collected by Erik Kaas Nielsen from a sixth grade student, Susanne Nielsen, at Brøndbyvester School, Copenhagen (1965).
  60. ^ ISFA (1999), p.59. Collected by Diamond Jenness in Canada (????).
  61. ^ Jayne (1962), p.345. Collected by Dr. S. Levinstein from traveling Dravidians in Leipzig (????).
  62. ^ "String Figure of the Month 2013: A Drunken Tree", ISFA.org. Collected by Isabel Balducci in Gran Chaco, Argentina (????).
  63. ^ Gryski (1985). Many Stars and More String Games, p.20. ISBN 0688057926.
  64. ^ ISFA (1999), p.55. Collected by Raul Martinez-Crovetto in Norther Patagonia, Argentina (????).
  65. ^ Jayne (1962), p.16. Collected by Dr. Haddon on the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition (1898), see Rivers and Haddon (1902, p.150).
  66. ^ Jayne (1962), p.320. Collected by Furness from a boy, Gumaun, in the Caroline Islands (????). Collected by Haddon in the Torres Straits (1898).
  67. ^ Gryski (1985), p.26.
  68. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.138.
  69. ^ Jayne (1962), p.346. Collected Jayne from a Chippewa Chief at the St. Louis Expo (1904), and by Furness from a Yap boy (1902).
  70. ^ Averkieva & Sherman (1992), p.7.
  71. ^ Jump up to: a b Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.188.
  72. ^ Jump up to: a b Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.187.
  73. ^ Rivers and Haddon (1902), p.149, fig.1. Cited in Jayne (1962), p.32.
  74. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Gryski (1983), p.22.
  75. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Jayne (1962), p.32. Salish collected by Harlan I. Smith in Thompson River (1897–1902), Clayoquaht by Haddon at St. Louis Exposition (1904), Zuni by Stewart Culin in New Mexico (????).
  76. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.42.
  77. ^ "String Figure of the Month 2013: A Flower", ISFA.org. Collected by Will Wirt from a student at Navajo Mountain High School, Utah (????).
  78. ^ Gryski (1983), p.54.
  79. ^ Jump up to: a b Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.38.
  80. ^ Jayne (1962), p.348. Collected by Haddon (????).
  81. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.75.
  82. ^ ISFA (1999), p.66. Collected by G.B. Gordon in King Island (first print in Jayne 1906).
  83. ^ Gryski (1985), p.32.
  84. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.76.
  85. ^ Jayne (1962), p.85. Collected by Haddon from a native from Lifu in Mabuiag (????)
  86. ^ Jump up to: a b Gryski (1985), p.36 & 38.
  87. ^ Jayne (1962), p.88.
  88. ^ Jayne (1962), p.89. Collected by Rivers & Haddon in Saguane (????).
  89. ^ Jayne (1962), p.394.
  90. ^ "String Figure of the Month 2013: Giraffe Eating Grass", ISFA.org. Invented by Kazuo Kamiya of Saitama, Japan.
  91. ^ ISFA (1999), p.29. Collected by James Hornell in Zanzibar Island (????).
  92. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.53.
  93. ^ Jayne (1962), p.339. Collected by Jayne from Linao Moro and Negrito Filipinos (1904) and by Furness from Dakofel in the Caroline Islands (????).
  94. ^ Jump up to: a b c Jayne (1962), p.371. Collected without instructions by Dr. Boas in Cumberland Sound.
  95. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.118.
  96. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.156.
  97. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.47.
  98. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.110.
  99. ^ Jayne (1962), p.200. Collected by Furness from a boy in West Carolines (1902).
  100. ^ "String Figure of the Month 2013: A Hunter Stalking a Seal", ISFA.org. Collected by Guy Mary-Rousselière in Pelly Bay, Nunavut, Canada (????).
  101. ^ Gryski (1983), p.32.
  102. ^ Gryski (1985), p.24.
  103. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.186.
  104. ^ Gryski (1985), p.48 & 50.
  105. ^ Jayne (1962), p.39. Collected by Haddon in Torres Straits (????).
  106. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.183.
  107. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.93.
  108. ^ Gryski (1985), p.44.
  109. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.130.
  110. ^ Gryski (1985), p.18.
  111. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.195.
  112. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Jayne (1962), p.116. Collected by Haddon from a part European/African/Cherokee Pullman porter (????) and by John L. Cox from an Onondaga Indian, Charles Doxon (????).
  113. ^ Gryski (1985), p.30.
  114. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.120.
  115. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.197.
  116. ^ Jayne (1962), p.216. Collected by Haddon in Chicago (1901).
  117. ^ Jump up to: a b Gryski (1983), p.48.
  118. ^ Jayne (1906), front matter.
  119. ^ Jayne (1962), p.295. Collected by John L. Cox from Emma Jackson (????).
  120. ^ Jayne (1962), p.233. Collected by Haddon in the Torres Straits (1904).
  121. ^ Jayne (1962), p.291. Collected by John L. Cox from Emma Jackson (????).
  122. ^ ISFA (1999), p.34. Tradition, described by Hiroshi Noguchi of Tokyo (????).
  123. ^ Jayne (1962), p.230. Collected by Jayne from Tso et. al. (1904).
  124. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.184.
  125. ^ Jayne (1962), p.391.
  126. ^ Jayne (1962), p.184. Collected by Jayne from Zah Tso & sister (1904).
  127. ^ Gryski (1983), p.44.
  128. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.81.
  129. ^ Jayne (1962), p.192. Collected by Haddon (????), published first by Jayne with chant.
  130. ^ Jump up to: a b Gryski (1983), p.56-7.
  131. ^ Gryski (1985), p.51.
  132. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.122.
  133. ^ Jump up to: a b c Jayne (1962), p.48, 53, & 66. Also Haddon (1903). Collected by Haddon from, "two old Navajo men," in Chicago (1901).
  134. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.121.
  135. ^ Jayne (1962), p.253. Collected by Furness from a woman, Lemet, in the Caroline Islands (1902).
  136. ^ Jump up to: a b Jayne (1962), p.54 & 55. Collected by Jayne from two girls, Zah Tso and her sister, from Gallup, New Mexico at the St. Louis Expo (1904).
  137. ^ Jump up to: a b Jayne (1962), p.56. Collected by Jayne from two girls from Gallup, New Mexico at the St. Louis Expo (1904), also Culin.
  138. ^ Jump up to: a b c Jayne (1962), p.58, 60, & 64. Collected by Jayne from two girls from Gallup, New Mexico at the St. Louis Expo (1904).
  139. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Jayne (1962), p.69, 74, 79, & 82. Collected by John L. Cox from a Klamath Indian from Oregon, Emma Jackson, in Hampton, Virginia (????).
  140. ^ Jayne (1962), p.209. Collected by John L. Cox from Wallace Springer (????).
  141. ^ Gryski (1985), p.40.
  142. ^ Jump up to: a b c Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.194.
  143. ^ "String Figure of the Month 2013: Moe Hora Hia", ISFA.org. Collected by Kenneth Emory in Polynesia (????).
  144. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.36.
  145. ^ Gryski (1983), p.46.
  146. ^ Gryski (1985), p.12.
  147. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.78.
  148. ^ Jayne (1962), p.340. Collected by Jayne from Batwa, Negrito, Linao Moros, Chippewa, Osage, Navajo, and Apache. Collected by Haddon from the Omaha and Japanese, and in Torres Straits (????). It is also known to the Irish, , and Alaskan Inuit.
  149. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.44-5.
  150. ^ Jayne (1962), p.282. Collected by Jayne from an Inuit man from Alaska, Chief Zaroff, at the St. Louis Expo (1904).
  151. ^ Gryski (1983), p.38.
  152. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.25.
  153. ^ "String Figure of the Month 2013: Naio Tree", ISFA.org. Collected by Lyle Dickey in Hawaii (????).
  154. ^ Averkieva & Sherman (1992), p.xxxi.
  155. ^ Jump up to: a b ISFA (1999), p.52. Wheelbarrow: invented by Carey C.K. Smith in Stratford, New Zealand (???).
  156. ^ Jump up to: a b ISFA (1999), p.5 & 9. Collected by Lyle A. Dickey in Hawaii (????).
  157. ^ Jayne (1962), p.176. Collected by Furness from Emily (1902).
  158. ^ Jayne (1962), p.243. Collected by Haddon in Chicago (1901).
  159. ^ Jayne (1962), p.11.
  160. ^ Gryski (1983), p.13 and (1985), p.9 and ISFA (1999), p.5.
  161. ^ Jump up to: a b Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.24.
  162. ^ ISFA (1999), p.34.
  163. ^ Gryski (1985), p.22.
  164. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.49.
  165. ^ Jayne (1962), p.28. Collected by Jayne in Pawhuska (1904), also exists in Hawaii.
  166. ^ Jump up to: a b c Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.201.
  167. ^ Jayne (1962), p.195. Collected by Haddon.
  168. ^ Miller, Lawrence G. (1945). "The Earliest (?) Description of a String Figure". American Anthropologist. New Series. 47 (3): 461–462. doi:10.1525/aa.1945.47.3.02a00190.
  169. ^ D'Antoni, Joseph (1997), Bulletin of the International String Figure Association, 4: 90–94, ISSN 1076-7886 Missing or empty |title= (help)
  170. ^ ISFA (June 2001). "Plinthios Brokhos". String Figure Magazine. International String Figure Association. 6 (2): 3–4. Retrieved 2008-08-13.
  171. ^ Day, Cyrus L. (1967). Quipus and Witches' Knots. Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Press. pp. 86–89, 124–126.
  172. ^ Gryski (1985), p.28.
  173. ^ ISFA (1999), p.14. Collected by Diamond Jenness in Northern Alaska (????).
  174. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.127.
  175. ^ Jayne (1962), p.137. Collected by John L. Cox from Emma Jackson (1904). "Appears to be...an [Inuit] figure,...very widely distributed."
  176. ^ Jayne (1962), p.10.
  177. ^ Gryski (1983), p.12.
  178. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.22.
  179. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.23.
  180. ^ Jayne (1962), p.276. Collected by Jayne from a Congo Kasai Valley Batwa boy, Ottobang, at the St. Louis Expo (1904).
  181. ^ Gryski (1985), p.54.
  182. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.132.
  183. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Jayne (1962), p.101, 110, 114, & 114. Collected by John L. Cox from Emma Jackson (????).
  184. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.72.
  185. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.26.
  186. ^ Gryski (1985), p.62.
  187. ^ ISFA (1999), p.37. Collected by Harry and Honor Maude in Micronesia (????).
  188. ^ Gryski (1983), p.36.
  189. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.112.
  190. ^ Jayne (1962), p.356. Collected by Jayne from a girl in Ireland (???).
  191. ^ Jayne (1962), p.390.
  192. ^ Gryski (1985), p.58.
  193. ^ Jayne (1962), p.34.
  194. ^ Jayne (1962), p.299. Collected by Jayne from Tso et. al. (1904).
  195. ^ ISFA (1999), p.11. Collected from children by Will Wirt in northeastern Peru (????).
  196. ^ ISFA (1999), p.70. Collected from a girl by H.R. Haefelfinger in Basel, Germany (????).
  197. ^ Gryski (1983), p.30.
  198. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.126.
  199. ^ Gryski (1985), p.34.
  200. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.43.
  201. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.46.
  202. ^ ISFA (1999), p.63. Invented in by Udo Engelhardt in Berlin, Germany (????).
  203. ^ Jayne (1962), p.392.
  204. ^ Jump up to: a b Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.117.
  205. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.114.
  206. ^ Jayne (1962), p.236. Collected by Jayne from Tso et. al. (1904).
  207. ^ ISFA (1999), p.49. Collected by Honor Maude in Micronesia (????).
  208. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.151.
  209. ^ Jayne (1962), p.21. Collected by Dr. Haddon in the Torres Straits (????), see Rivers and Haddon (1902, p.150).
  210. ^ ISFA (1999), p.44. Collected by Diamond Jenness in Canada (????).
  211. ^ Jayne (1962), p.248. Collected by the Rev. John Gray from children in Cowgate, Edinburgh (????), story described by Margaret A. Hingston as in Somerset.
  212. ^ "String Figure of the Month 2013: Tao Ta 16", ISFA.org. Invented by Masahiko Eguchi of Japan, based on techniques from Tikopia Island.
  213. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Jayne (1962), p.150, 156, 158, & 162. Collected by Furness from Emily (1902), Roth gives "Turtle".
  214. ^ Jayne (1962), p.395.
  215. ^ Jayne (1962), p.160. Collected by Dr. Furness from a boy in West Carolines (1902). Step two produces "Plinthios Brokhos"
  216. ^ Jayne (1962), p.354.
  217. ^ Jayne (1962), p.167. Collected by Furness from a 13yo woman, Dakofel, in the West Carolines (???).
  218. ^ Jayne (1962), p.350. Collected by Jayne in Pawhuska (1904).
  219. ^ ISFA (1999), p.41. Collected by Julia Averkieva in Vancouver Island (????).
  220. ^ Jayne (1962), p.337. Collected by Haddon in the Torres Straits (????). Collected by Furness from a boy in the Caroline Islands (1902).
  221. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.63.
  222. ^ Jayne (1962), p.96. Collected by Haddon (????), first published by Jayne.
  223. ^ ISFA (1999), p.19. Modern figure, possible 1st mention: Noguchi, Hiroshi (1980).
  224. ^ Jump up to: a b Jayne (1962), p.265 & 271. "Turtle" collected by Furness from a woman, Dakofel, in the Caroline Islands (????). "Ten Times" resembles a figure Jayne saw Linao Moros people form in St. Louis (1904).
  225. ^ Jayne (1962), p.228. Collected by Jayne from Tso et. al. (1904), also Culin.
  226. ^ Jayne (1962), p.317. Collected by Cox from Emma Jackson (????).
  227. ^ Jayne (1962), p.188. Collected by Furness, from a man, probably from Dulukan, in Uap (????).
  228. ^ Jump up to: a b c Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.205.
  229. ^ Jayne (1962), p.121. Collected by Haddon from two old Navajo men in Chicago (1901), also Culin.
  230. ^ ISFA (1999), p.72. Collected by Walter E. Roth in Guyana (????).
  231. ^ Jayne (1962), p.287. Collected by John L. Cox from Emma Jackson (????).
  232. ^ Jayne (1962), p.129. Collected by Jayne from Zah Tso & sister (1904).
  233. ^ Jayne (1962), p.127. Collected by Boas.
  234. ^ Jayne (1962), p.204. Collected by John L. Cox in Hampton, Virginia, from Wallace Springer, an Omaha Indian (????).
  235. ^ "String Figure of the Month 2013: A Wanderer", ISFA.org. Invented by Tom Storer after Hiroshi Noguchi (????).
  236. ^ Averkieva & Sherman (1992), p.9.
  237. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.87.
  238. ^ Gryski (1985), p.16.
  239. ^ Gryski (1983), p.24.
  240. ^ "String Figure of the Month 2013: The Woman Who Walks a Lot", ISFA.org. Collected by Camilla Wedgwood in N. New Guinea (????).
  241. ^ Jayne (1962), p.222. Collected by Jayne from Tso et. al. (1904).
  242. ^ Elffers & Schuyt (1979), p.134.
  243. ^ Jayne (1962), p.352. Collected by Haddon (????).
  244. ^ Gryski (1983), p.50.

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