Mass communication

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This article is about the academic field of study. For the actual means of mass communication, see Mass media.

Mass communication are the process of imparting and exchanging information through mass media to large segments of the population. It is usually understood for relating to various forms of media, as these technologies are used for the dissemination of information, of which journalism and advertising are part. Mass communication differs from other forms of communication, such as interpersonal communication and organizational communication, because it focuses on particular resources transmitting information to numerous receivers. The study of mass communication is chiefly concerned with how the content of mass communication persuades or otherwise affects the behavior, the attitude, opinion, or emotion of the people receiving the information.

Normally, transmission of messages to many recipients at a time is called mass communication. But in a complete sense, mass communication can be understood as the process of extensive circulation of information within regions and across the globe.

Through mass communication, information can be transmitted quickly to many people who generally stay far away from the sources of information. Mass communication is practiced multiple mediums, such as radio, television, social networking, billboards, newspapers, magazines, books, film, and the Internet. In this modern era, mass communication is being used to disperse information at an accelerated rate, often about politics and other charged topics. There are major connections between the media that is being consumed, via mass communication, and our culture, contributing to polarization and dividing people based on consequential issues.[1]

Field of study[]

See also: Models of stuyding mass communication agenda setting

In social science, mass communication is a sub-field of communication studies. Mass communication is "the process by which a person, group of people or organization creates a message and transmits it through some type of medium to a large, anonymous, heterogeneous audience."[2] This implies that the audience of mass communication is mostly made up of different cultures, behavior, and belief systems. Mass communication is commonly associated with media studies.

In the United States, the study of mass communication is often associated with the practical applications of journalism, television and radio broadcasting, film, public relations, corporate or advertising. With the diversification of media forms, the study of mass communication has extended to include social media and new media, which have stronger feedback models than traditional media sources.[citation needed]

The history of communication stretches from prehistoric forms of art and writing through modern communication methods such as the Internet. Mass communication began when humans could transmit messages from a single source to multiple receivers. Mass communication has moved from theories such as the hypodermic needle model (or magic bullet theory) through more modern theories such as computer-mediated communication.[citation needed]

Types of mass communication[]

Advertising[]

Main article: Advertising

Advertising, in relation to mass communication, is marketing a product or service in a persuasive manner that encourages the audience to buy the product or use the service. Because advertising generally takes place through some form of mass media, such as television, studying the effects and methods of advertising is relevant to the study of mass communication. Advertising is the paid, impersonal, one-way marketing of persuasive information from a sponsor. Through mass communication channels, the sponsor promotes the adoption of products or ideas. Advertisers have full control of the message being sent to their audience.[3]

Journalism[]

Main article: Journalism

Journalism is the production and distribution of reports on events for presentation through the media. The study of journalism involves analyzing the dissemination of information to the public through media outlets such as newspapers, news channels, radio stations, television stations, and, more recently, e-readers and smartphones.

Alternative journalism deviates from established or dominant types of media in terms of their content, production, or distribution. Alternative journalism utilizes the same media outlets as mainstream journalism, to advocate the interests of those excluded from the mainstream.

Civic journalism (also known as "public journalism") is the idea of integrating journalism into the democratic process. The media not only informs the public, but it also works towards engaging citizens and creating public debate.

Citizen journalism is based upon public citizens actively producing news and information. Citizen journalism deals with the distribution of news by the public, often through the Internet.

Public relations[]

Main article: Public relations

Public relations is the process of providing information to the public in order to present a specific view of a product or organization. Public relations differs from advertising in that it is less obtrusive, and aimed at providing a more comprehensive opinion to a large audience in order to shape public opinion. Unlike advertising, public relations professionals only have control until the message is related to media gatekeepers who decide where to pass the information on to the audience.[3]

Social media[]

Main article: Social media

Social media, in its modern use, refers to platforms used on both mobile devices and home computers that allow users to interact through the use of words, images, sounds, and video.[4] Social media includes popular sites such as Facebook and Instagram, as well as sites that can aid in business networking such as LinkedIn.The use and importance of social media in communications and public relations has grown drastically throughout the years and is now a staple in advertisements to mass audiences. For many newer companies and businesses geared towards young people social media is a tool for advertising purposes and growing the brand. Social Media provides additional ways to connect and reach out to ones targeted audience.[5]

There are multiple social-networking sites that have the ability to visualize and share ones personal social life. Even though the first social networking sites were created several years ago, the rise of both Myspace and Facebook took over and cancelled out the previous social media sites. As of today, Facebook is one of the most popular social media websites for multiple types of communication. Generally, Facebook is used for communication with relatives and friends along with people who share interests.[6]

Social media have introduced new difficulties into relationships. One way this has occurred is through catfishing. The term catfish refers to a person who uses a false online profile on a social media platform. Most commonly, a catfish communicates with another online profile to get them to fall in love with the false persona they created. The MTV reality show Catfish: The TV Show has brought mainstream attention to this issue.[4] The goal of these episodes is to keep track of people who have fallen in love with someone they interacted with online, but never met in person. As catfishing has become a mainstream term, people have wondered how and why it continues to happen. Nev Schulman, host of the show, has said "I think people will always be looking to fall in love. People will always hope for things to get better. For better, or worse, there will always be people who may or may not look to take advantage of that."[7]

Audio media[]

Recorded music[]

Recordings, developed in the 1870s, became the first non-print form of mass communication. The invention of the phonograph by Thomas Edison in the late 19th century, the graphophone by Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Tainter, and the gramophone by The Victor Talking Machine Company were the first competing mass media forms that brought recorded music to the masses.[4] Recording changed again in the 1950s with the invention of the LP (long play) vinyl record, then eight track-tapes, followed by vinyl, and cassettes in 1965. Compact discs (CDs) followed and were seen as the biggest invention in recorded arts since Edison.[8]

Radio[]

Radio is considered the most widely accessible form of mass communication in the world and the medium used to the greatest degree in the United States.[4] Internet radio has now become increasingly more popular, as radio stations are streaming content through their websites and other applications. Music streaming services such as Apple Music and Spotify, have also integrated radio features onto the platform.[9] Spotify Radio is a feature that allows Spotify to continuously create a playlist for its users with tracks and podcast segments based on any artist or playlist they wish.

Convergence[]

Convergence refers to the coming together of telecommunications as forms of mass communication in a digital media environment. There is no clear definition of Convergence and its effects. However, it can be viewed through three lenses: technological convergence, cultural convergence, and economic convergence.[4] Technological convergence is the action of two or more media companies merging in a digital platform and can lead companies to develop new commodities or become part of new sectors and/or economies.[10] Cultural convergence deals with the blending of different beliefs, values, and traditions between groups of people and may occur through the globalization of content. Sex and the City, an American show set in New York City, was viewed internationally and became popular among female workers in Thailand.[4] A study on the consumption of YouTube, conducted by the Information Technology Department and Sociology Department at Cornell University, concluded that cultural convergence occurs more frequently in advanced cosmopolitan areas.[11]

Integrated Communication[]

Integrated Communication refers to the process of bringing together several types of mass communication to function across the mediascape. Usinge "Paid," "Owned" and "Earned" media (PESO)[12] or "Shared," "Owned," "Earned" and "Paid" (SOPE)[13] as it's principal framework, the process considers all methods of communication distribution strategically.

Film and television[]

Film[]

Main article: Film

The film industry began with the invention of the Kinetoscope by Thomas Edison. His failure to patent it resulted in two brothers, Louis and Auguste Lumiere creating a portable camera that could process film and project images.[4] The invention quickly gained notoriety when the Lumiere brothers debuted a series of 60-second clips screened outdoors to a Parisian audience. Despite the ever-growing popularity of moving images, the Lumiere Brothers did not seek to revolutionize the style of the film, but stuck to documenting daily life in France. This set the grounds for future film revolutionaries, including George Melies, who sought to create narrative sequences in his films through the use of special effects.[4]

Television[]

Main article: Television

In the 1970s, television began to change to include more complicated and three-dimensional characters and plots. PBS launched in 1970, and was the home for programming that would not be suitable for network television. It operates on donations and little government funding, rather than having commercials. On January 12, 1971, the sitcom All in the Family premiered on CBS, and covered the issues of the day and portrayed a bigot named Archie Bunker.[4] By 1972, the sales of color television sets surpassed that of black-and-white sets. In the 1980s, television became geared towards what has become known as the MTV Generation, with a surge in the number of cable channels.[14]

Photography[]

Main article: Photography

Photography plays a role in the field of technology and mass communication by demonstrating facts or reinforcing ideas. Although the photos are altered digitally, it is still considered[by whom?] a proof to expose and communicate.[4]

History of photography[]

Camera obscura was one of the first techniques that lead to creating photos. It could create an image on a wall or piece of paper. Joseph Niepce was a French inventor that took the first photo in 1827 that required 8 hours of exposure. In 1839, Louis Daguerre introduced the daguerreotype that reduced exposure time to about thirty minutes. As the years progressed, so did photography techniques, including creating better image quality, adding color to an image, and reduced exposure time.

Contemporary photography industry[]

The modern industry has dramatically changed with the development of digital, as phones and digital cameras have made film-based cameras a niche product. Kodak discontinued making a color film in 1999 and declared Bankruptcy in 2012. Other companies like Fujifilm adapted despite a downturn in sales.[4]

Interactive media[]

Video games[]

Main article: List of video game genres

Video game genres are a classification assigned to a video game based on its game play rather than a visual or storytelling differences. A video game genre is defined by a set of game play challenges and are classified independently of when and where the game takes place.

Ethics in interactive media[]

Interactive media is a form of communication technique that refers to services on digital computer-based systems. This requires two or more parties who respond to each other through text, moving images, animation, video, audio, and video games.[15] The ethics in interactive media mainly focus on the violence of video games, advertising being influenced in different ways and behavioral targeting.

The violence of video games relates to ethics in interactive media because it brings on aggressive attitude and behavior that impacts the social lives of the people playing these video games.[16] Furthermore, behavioral targeting ties into the ethics of interactive media because these websites and apps on our phones contain personal information which allow the owners or the ones running the companies to receive it and use them for themselves.[17] Interactive media influences advertising because by society using social media or any websites, we are able to see that there's advertising in everything we view especially when your scrolling through Instagram or those pop up ads that come up on your screen reading an article on your computer.

E-books[]

Main article: E-book

eBooks have changed how people read. People are able to download books onto their devices. This allows consumers to track what they read, to annotate, and to search for definitions of words on the internet.[18] With e-books in education, the increased demand for mobile access to course materials and eBooks for students corresponds with the increased number of smartphones.[19] E- readers such as the Amazon Kindle have advanced over the years. Since its launch in 2007, the Kindle has expanded its memory from 4 GB to 8 GB. In addition, the Kindle has added accessories including games, movies, and music.

Major theories[]

Communication researchers have identified several major theories associated with the study of mass communication. Communication theory addresses the processes and mechanisms that allow communication to take place.

  • Cultivation theory, developed by George Gerbner and Marshall McLuhan, discusses the long-term effects of watching television, and hypothesizes that the more television an individual consumes, the more likely that person is to believe the real world is similar to what they have seen on television.[20] Cultivation is closely related to the idea of the mean world syndrome, which asserts people who watch the news frequently are more likely to believe the world is a 'mean' place. [21]
  • Contingency Theory informs organizations how to communicate ethically with their publics, especially during crisis.[22]
  • Agenda setting theory centers around the idea that media outlets tell the public "not what to think, but what to think about." Agenda setting hypothesizes that media have the power to influence the public discourse, and tell people what are important issues facing society.[23]
  • The spiral of silence, developed by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, hypothesizes that people are more likely to reveal their opinion in public if they believe that they are of the majority opinion, for fear that revealing an unpopular opinion would subject them to being a social outcast. This theory is relevant to mass communication because it hypothesizes that mass media have the power to shape people's opinions, as well as relay the opinion that is believed to be the majority opinion.[24]
  • Media ecology hypothesizes that individuals are shaped by their interaction with media,[25] and that communication and media profoundly affect how individuals view and interact with their environment.[26]
  • According to the Semiotic theory, communication characteristics such as words, images, gestures, and situations are always interpretive. All sign systems, entitled to be "read" or interpreted, regardless of form, may be referred to as "texts." In the study of Semiotics, there is no such thing as a literal reading.[citation needed]

Methods of study[]

Communication researchers study communication through various methods that have been verified through repetitive, cumulative processes. Both quantitative and qualitative methods have been used in the study of mass communication. The main focus of mass communication research is to learn how the content of mass communication affects the attitudes, opinions, emotions, and ultimately behaviors of the people who receive the message. Several prominent methods of study are as follows:[27]

  • Studying cause and effect relationships in communication can only be done through an experiment. This quantitative method regularly involves exposing participants to various media content and recording their reactions. To show causation, mass communication researchers must isolate the variable they are studying, show that it occurs before the observed effect and that it is the only variable that could cause the observed effect.
  • Survey, another quantitative method, involves asking individuals to respond to a set of questions in order to generalize their responses to a larger population.
  • Content analysis (sometimes known as textual analysis) refers to the process of identifying the categorical properties of a piece of communication, such as a newspaper article, book, television program, film, or broadcast news script. This process allows researchers to see what the content of communication looks like.
  • A qualitative method is known as ethnography allows a researcher to immerse themselves into a culture to observe and record the qualities of communication that exist there.

Professional organizations[]

The Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication is the major membership organization for academics in the field,[citation needed] offering regional and national conferences and refereed publications. The International Communication Association and National Communication Association (formerly the Speech Communication Association) are also prominent professional organizations.[citation needed] Each of these organizations publishes a different refereed academic journal that reflects the research that is being performed in the field of mass communication.

See also[]

Notes[]

  1. ^ Campbell, Richard (2015). Media & Culture: Mass Communication in a Digital Age. Macmillan Higher Education. ISBN 978-1319010430.
  2. ^ Pearce, Kevin J. (2009). "Media and Mass Communication Theories". Encyclopedia of Communication Theory. doi:10.4135/9781412959384.n231. ISBN 978-1-4129-5937-7.
  3. ^ Jump up to: a b Curtis, Anthony. "What is Advertising?". Archived from the original on 25 October 2012.[self-published source?]
  4. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Pavlik, John; McIntosh, Shawn (2017). Converging Media; A New Introduction to Mass Communication. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 11, 99, 107, 108, 110, 127, 130, 192, 219, 243–246.
  5. ^ Franklin, Bob; Hogan, Mike; Langley, Quentin; Mosdell, Nick; Pill, Elliot (2009). Key Concepts in Public Relations. 1 Oliver's Yard,  55 City Road,  London    EC1Y 1SP  United Kingdom: SAGE Publications Ltd. doi:10.4135/9781446269084. ISBN 9781412923194.CS1 maint: location (link)
  6. ^ Eghdam, Aboozar; Hamidi, Ulrika; Bartfai, Aniko; Koch, Sabine (29 January 2018). "Facebook as communication support for persons with potential mild acquired cognitive impairment: A content and social network analysis study". PLOS ONE. 13 (1): e0191878. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1391878E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0191878. PMC 5788370. PMID 29377930.
  7. ^ Rothman, Lily (1 July 2013). "The Catfish Came Back". Time.
  8. ^ Vernon), Pavlik, John V. (John (2016). Converging media : a new introduction to mass communication. McIntosh, Shawn (Fifth ed.). New York. p. 99. ISBN 9780190271510. OCLC 914136954.
  9. ^ "Spotify Radio". Spotify. Retrieved 2020-09-03.
  10. ^ Suh, Jungwoo (2015). "Analyzing technological convergence trends in a business ecosystem". Industrial Management & Data Systems. 115 (4): 718–739. doi:10.1108/IMDS-10-2014-0310.
  11. ^ Park, Minus; Park, Jaram; Baek, Young Min; Macy, Michael (2017). "Cultural Values and cross cultural youtube consumption on Youtube". PLOS ONE. 12 (5): 1. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0177865. PMC 5439684. PMID 28531228.
  12. ^ Belden, Christy (1 December 2013). "Paid, earned and owned media: Convergence in social media". Journal of Digital & Social Media Marketing. 1 (3): 243–250.
  13. ^ Macnamara, Jim; Lwin, May; Adi, Ana; Zerfass, Ansgar (September 2016). "'PESO' media strategy shifts to 'SOEP': Opportunities and ethical dilemmas". Public Relations Review. 42 (3): 377–385. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2016.03.001. hdl:10453/44050.
  14. ^ Fitzpatrick, Laura (22 June 2009). "A Brief History Of: Television". Time.
  15. ^ Pavlik, John (2017). Converging Media; A New Introduction to Mass Communication. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 185.
  16. ^ Coyne, Sarah M.; Warburton, Wayne A.; Essig, Lee W.; Stockdale, Laura A. (October 2018). "Violent video games, externalizing behavior, and prosocial behavior: A five-year longitudinal study during adolescence". Developmental Psychology. 54 (10): 1868–1880. doi:10.1037/dev0000574. PMID 30234338. S2CID 52304261.
  17. ^ Myers, Patrick (1 January 2016). "Protecting Personal Information: Achieving a Balance between User Privacy and Behavioral Targeting". University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform. 49 (3): 717–747.
  18. ^ Pavlik, John; McIntosh, Shawn (2017). Converging Media; A New Introduction to Mass Communication. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 70, 107, 108, 219.
  19. ^ Scott, David (2014). "Ebooks in further education". In Hazel Woodward (ed.). Ebooks in Education: Realising the Vision. Ubiquity Press. p. 13. ISBN 9781909188372. JSTOR j.ctv3t5qn1.5.
  20. ^ Gerbner, G.; Gross, L.; Morgan, M.; Signorielli, N. (1986). "Living with television: The dynamics of the cultivation process". In Bryant, Jennings; Zillmann, Dolf (eds.). Perspectives on Media Effects. L. Erlbaum Associates. pp. 17–40. ISBN 978-0-89859-641-0.
  21. ^ "George Gerbner | American journalist". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-09-18.
  22. ^ Pang, Augustine; Jin, Yan; Cameron, Glen T (March 2010). Contingency theory of strategic conflict management: Unearthing factors that influence ethical elocution in crisis communication. 13th International Public Relations Research Conference. Coral Gables, Florida. pp. 554–573.
  23. ^ McCombs, Maxwell E.; Shaw, Donald L. (18 August 2017). "The agenda-setting function of mass media". The Agenda Setting Journal. Theory, Practice, Critique. 1 (2): 105–116. doi:10.1075/asj.1.2.02mcc.
  24. ^ Noelle‐Neumann, Elisabeth (1974). "The Spiral of Silence A Theory of Public Opinion". Journal of Communication. 24 (2): 43–51. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1974.tb00367.x.
  25. ^ Postman, Neil (June 2000). The Humanism of Media Ecology (PDF). Media Ecology Association Convention.
  26. ^ McLuhan, Marshall; Fiore, Quentin; Agel, Jerome (1996). The Medium is the Massage: An Inventory of Effects. HardWired. ISBN 978-1-888869-02-6.[page needed]
  27. ^ Babbie, E. (2007). The practice of social research. Thomas Higher Education: Belmont, California. ISBN 0-495-09325-4

References[]

  • Hartley, J.: "Mass communication", in O'Sullivan; Fiske (eds): Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies (Routledge, 1997).
  • Mackay, H.; O'Sullivan T.: The Media Reader: Continuity and Transformation (Sage, 1999).
  • McQuail, D.: McQuail's Mass Communication Theory (fifth edition) (Sage, 2005).
  • Thompson, John B.: The Media and Modernity (Polity, 1995).
  • Griffin, E. (2009). A first look at communication theory. McGraw Hill: New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-07-338502-0
  • Babbie, E. (2007). The practice of social research. Thomas Higher Education: Belmont, California. ISBN 0-495-09325-4
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