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Modern Paganism and New Age

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Modern Paganism is the real or purported practice of paganism in the modern period. New Age is a body of beliefs characterised by millenarian ideas about spiritual advancement. Both exist as eclectic movements without centralised institutions or dogma. Since the emergence of New Age in the second half of the 20th century, they have sometimes interacted, influenced each other and often been confused in the popular mind. Some hybrid forms have emerged, especially in the United States where the movements tend to overlap. In the 1990s, several scholars who studied New Age movements placed modern Paganism under the umbrella of New Age, a classification which has been contested by scholars of modern Paganism.

Modern Pagan and New Age movements generally differ in their views of history, nature and the goal of the practitioner. Modern Pagans commonly attribute wisdom to past cultures, whereas New Agers believe in the coming of an improved human consciousness. Modern Pagan theology connects the natural world to the divine, whereas New Age writers favour transcendence of the physical existence. Modern Pagan practices tend to be ceremonial and focus on community, whereas New Age practices are concerned primarily with the personal growth of the individual. Their different views of the natural world and spirituality sometimes create friction between the movements. Modern Pagans often seek to distance themselves from New Age identity and sometimes use the term "New Age" as an insult. New Agers commonly criticise modern Pagans for their emphasis on material concerns.

Comparison[]

Modern Paganism[]

Main article: Modern Paganism
See also: Ethnic religion
Ancient pottery with a depiction of a man who pours something over an altar
Ancient Christians described other religions as pagan (pictured: libation scene from an Attic cup interior, c. 480 BC).

The word pagan comes from the Latin paganus, which was used by ancient Christian writers, notably Augustine of Hippo, as a religious category that included ancient Greek and ancient Roman religions.[1][a] It overlaps with the Germanic-language word heathen which carries on the meaning of the Greek word ethnikós, meaning "of a [different] people".[3] Discourses about surviving or returning paganism have existed throughout the modern period and explicit attempts to re-establish pagan religions in Europe have taken place since at least the 15th century. Positive self-identification with the term pagan has frequently been combined with criticism of Christianity and of organised religion in general, and became more common in the 18th and 19th centuries.[4] Many modern Pagan new religious movements have roots in the cultural revival and national independence movements of these centuries.[5]

There is no universally accepted definition of modern Paganism; it is often understood as distinct from ancient religions, although some scholars have categorised paganism as a generic religious category.[6][b] The religious studies scholar Michael York advocates the latter approach and says that despite the diverse interpretations of modern Paganism, there are general traits that can be summarised as an ideal type.[8] Modern Pagans typically attribute wisdom and insight to past cultures, especially those of pre-Christian times. Modern Pagan theology is characterised by immanence and thus connects the divine to the natural world. Religious practices vary in origin and execution, but typically revolve around ceremonies and have a focus on community.[9]

New Age[]

Main article: New Age
See also: Self religion
Photograph of a starry sky with white lines tracing the constellation Aquarius
New Age teaches that human consciousness will undergo a significant change, typically coinciding with the Age of Aquarius.

New Age is an umbrella term for an eclectic set of beliefs and techniques that emerged or became more prominent during the counterculture of the 1960s. It receives its name from the idea that human consciousness has changed with the passage of astrological ages, and that the arrival of the Age of Aquarius, which is believed to be the next or current age, will result in a renewal of human spirituality.[9] The term New Age was first used in Theosophical literature and was picked up by post-war UFO religions and other movements that held millenarian beliefs in a coming advancement in human consciousness and understanding. A broader use of the term, based on shared interests, milieus and historical links, became established in the 1970s and 1980s.[10] The main precursors and sources of inspiration to concepts within the New Age movement are Theosophy, New Thought and Carl Jung.[11] Other precursors mentioned by scholars include Joachim of Fiore, transcendentalism, Swedenborgianism and Christian Science.[12] Like several of their precursors, New Agers are often interested in Eastern religions.[13]

Among the basic tendencies of New Age, as described by Wouter Hanegraaff, are the millenarian idea of a new age, the mixing of psychology and religion, evolutionist beliefs in regards to teleology, pedagogy and creativity, a quest for "wholeness" and weak reliance on worldly experiences.[14] New Age teachings generally favour transcendence of the physical existence and de-emphasise material concerns.[15] Adherents often combine and mix practices according to individual needs and interests:[11] they may use techniques such as channeling, visualisation, positive thinking, alternative healing methods and meditation.[16] Some practices are based on a belief that a divine self can be discovered within each individual.[17] General aims are self-growth, physical healing and success in helping people to reach a higher consciousness, both in regards to the individual and to the collective unconscious.[18]

Similarities and commonalities[]

General commonalities[]

Commonalities between modern Paganism and New Age can be found in their shared eclecticism and absence of central authorities and dogma, something that makes them atypical among new religious movements. Instead of being led by a charismatic leader and wanting to separate themselves from their surrounding society, both movements exist through decentralised networks of people, organisations, media projects, events and small communities.[19] They have some terminology in common, tend to value creativity and imagination highly, and adherents may share interests in subjects like Native American and aboriginal cultures, reincarnation or shamanism.[20]

According to the German religious studies scholar Kocku von Stuckrad, modern Paganism and New Age have a similar dynamic between the emic and etic—the perspectives of the practitioner and the outside observer.[21] Stuckrad attributes this to the second half of the 20th century, when many European and North American intellectuals were sceptical of narratives which held modern Europe as superior and tied European culture to Christian values. This created both academic and popular interest in marginalised and ambiguous parts of European culture, history and identity, which became widespread as the counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s.[22] A complex relationship continues to exist between academic study and practice in modern Paganism and New Age. Older scholarship such as the Great Goddess hypothesis and Jung's psychological theories continue to have impact, new academic terms are adopted by practitioners, and when scholars use a term that originated in an emic milieu it might be taken as legitimisation of that term.[23]

Overlap and hybrid forms[]

Beyond the ideal types and general tendencies, modern Paganism and New Age can exhibit features of each other. New Age materials in particular do not always make a distinction between them. Modern Paganism as it exists, according to one scholar, is characterised by confusion between generic and nominal forms, and may incorporate elements of Kabbalism, Freemasonry-derived ceremonial magic, neopythagoreanism and neoplatonism.[15] Christopher Partridge of Lancaster University's Centre for the Study of Religion and Popular Culture describes both movements as parts of the occulture—the spiritual undercurrents of the West—and likens them to two different streams that merge at some points.[24]

Photograph of a man wearing a green mask and leaves over his body
Man dressed as the Green Man at the 1997 Starwood Festival

Modern Pagan movements in the United Kingdom, the United States and in Australia have been influenced by ambitions to create individualistic and egalitarian communities, which is less prominent elsewhere in Europe.[25] Especially in the United States, the modern Pagan phenomenon largely emerged alongside New Age in the counterculture and youth culture of the baby boom generation,[26] and there is significant overlap between the movements.[27] According to the religious studies scholar Sarah M. Pike, who wrote a monograph about modern Paganism and New Age in the United States, the movements share a high degree of religious personalisation and tend towards apocalypticism, and their relationship can be understood through their place in American religious and social history. American modern Pagan and New Age communities are often connected to social change movements, promoting sexual liberation, feminism and the post-war American environmental movement.[28] An example of overlap is the annual Starwood Festival, which features modern Pagan and New Age activities as parts of a stated goal to be eclectic and inclusive.[29]

The Gaia hypothesis, which was proposed in the 1970s and understands the earth as a living being, has influenced both modern Pagan and New Age practitioners. Among modern Pagans, it has had most impact on the Goddess movement, where Gaia is venerated as the earth mother; in New Age, Gaia has been defined as a super-consciousness and a balancing principle.[30] Modern Paganism and New Age began to become more similar in the 1990s, as modern Pagans more frequently adopted panentheistic views, which combine the beliefs in immanence and transcendence, while New Agers embraced ideas such as holistic science and the Gaia hypothesis, making the movements more receptive to each other's perspectives.[30] A 2001 book review in Publishers Weekly described the views of the American writer Francesca De Grandis as a hybrid of Goddess worship and New Age teachings about self-love, which resulted in "a book on how to worship yourself as a goddess".[31]

In the 1990s and 2000s, increasing presence of Wicca—a modern Pagan movement inspired by the witch-cult hypothesis—in popular culture, with examples such as the 1996 American film The Craft, led to mutual influence between modern Paganism and New Age. It helped to create and popularise a lifestyle-oriented form of Wicca, represented by writers such as Silver RavenWolf and Scott Cunningham, which primarily became popular among teenage girls.[32] The sociologist of religion Douglas Ezzy says this version of Wicca is heavily influenced by New Age in its individualism and element of commercialism, which he exemplifies with commercial spell books.[33] Ezzy's writings about what he calls "popularised Witchcraft" has led to academic debate concerning its classification as modern Paganism or New Age.[34]

Modern Paganism under the New Age umbrella[]

Several late 20th-century scholars and religious writers treated modern Paganism and the New Age culture as the same phenomenon, or included modern Paganism, especially Wicca, under the umbrella of New Age. This was done by some of the leading scholars of the New Age phenomenon, such as Antoine Faivre, Hanegraaff and Paul Heelas.[35][c] In his 1996 monograph about New Age, Hanegraaff makes a distinction between older versions of modern Paganism and a "New Age variety".[38] In the latter he includes Wicca, especially the forms established in the United States since the 1960s, and the Goddess movement.[39] He addresses a contention made by the American Wiccan Aidan A. Kelly that modern Paganism "parallels the New Age movement in some ways, differs sharply from it in others, and overlaps it in some minor ways",[40] by dismissing this argument as based on a selective view of New Age and possibly an expression of apologia for modern Paganism, of which Kelly is an adherent.[41] Agreeing with York's descriptions of the similarities and differences between the movements, Hanegraaff says that their complicated relationship makes modern Paganism "a special, relatively clearly circumscribed subculture within [New Age]".[42] Heelas, in his book from 1996, points to the psychological interpretation of theology in New Age teachings, where gods are viewed as projections of the human mind. This results in self-sacralisation, which he also attributes to modern Paganism and uses this as a basis for its inclusion under the New Age umbrella.[43]

Photograph of Miriam Simos sitting in a chair outdoors
Miriam "Starhawk" Simos has been involved in both Wicca and New Age.

A number of scholars of modern Paganism dispute the categorisation of their field under the unbrella of New Age.[35] According to York, several factors may have contributed to the confusion between the movements, including a shared status as "outsider heresies" in relation to Western mainstream society and Christianity.[37] Other factors include the involvement of the Wiccan Miriam "Starhawk" Simos in organised New Age activities, and modern Pagans who in the 1980s adopted the metaphor of a "new age", before distancing themselves from New Age identity in the 1990s.[37][d] The sociologist Melissa Harrington, who describes herself as a scholar of Wicca,[44] attributes Faivre's and Hanegraaff's categorisation of modern Paganism as a subculture of New Age to the breadth of their study of religious subcultures, which creates a false impression of homogeneity.[44] The religious studies scholar Joanne Pearson, whose doctoral dissertation was about Wicca, says a part of the explanation lies in a failure to acknowledge how terminology is used differently depending on the context; for example how the words "Wicca" and "traditional" are understood differently in British and American discussions about Wicca and witchcraft.[45][e] Pearson responded to Heelas in 1998 and argued against the view that modern Paganism is characterised by self-sacralisation.[46]

Differences[]

Views of history[]

Modern Pagans and New Agers typically have contrasting views of history and the future.[47] Modern Pagans turn to religious views from the past which they try to revive or, often, to reinvent. Particularly in Europe, modern Pagan movements sometimes claim to have an unbroken lineage which can be traced back to ancient times.[25] Their view of history is usually based on myths and images which are derived from past cultures, existing traditions or from nature, and they have no millenarian beliefs, that is, any anticipation of future change at a fundamental level.[48] Harrington says history is regarded as an endless cycle of death and rebirth.[49]

The New Age view of history, in contrast, generally has an evolutionary teleology.[49] New Agers understand history as a progression of significantly different ages and focus on ways to shape the future which they believe will be characterised by a higher consciousness.[47] Instead of seeking to be tradition-bound like modern Pagans, New Agers are typically oriented towards an eclectic and new spirituality.[49]

Nature and metaphysics[]

York says immanent theology distinguishes modern Pagan movements from New Age movements. For modern Pagans, the natural world is at the centre of conceptions of the sacred.[48] According to Harrington, modern Pagans generally promote views of completeness where mind–body dualism is absent and the world is regarded as fully functional.[49]

Heelas, York and other scholars say the dominant New Age view is that spiritual truth is more important than material concerns, and this leads to a Manichean dualism where the natural world is viewed as less important, as an obstacle or rejected as an illusion.[50] Heelas says the search for metaphysical perfection and the view that mankind is malfunctioning are defining features of New Age spirituality, which Ezzy, Harrington and Pearson contrast with modern Pagan views.[51] Using sociological classifications of world-affirming and world-rejecting religious movements, York says that modern Paganism and New Age represent two rival theologies,[48] and that New Agers in particular tend to underestimate the "Gnostic–Pagan divide", where New Age teachings are part of a Gnostic tradition that de-emphasises or negates the body and the physical existence.[52]

Practice and practitioner[]

Among modern Pagans, ceremonies are usually central to the religious identity, and seasonal holidays and life passages are ritualised and celebrated in small groups.[53] The ceremonies take different forms depending on the groups that perform them and may involve ancestor veneration or attempts to communicate with spirits.[46] Modern Pagans tend to place emphasis on serving a community and many movements in Europe involve ethnic pride and have been connected to nationalism. This is less common in the United States, where it is generally seen as controversial for European-descended people to adopt traditions and motifs from non-European cultures.[25] Pearson characterises modern Paganism as based on long-term continuity and contrasts this with New Age practices which are more focused on reaching specific results.[54]

"Generally speaking, whereas we have seen that much in the New Age is explicitly epistemologically individualistic, focusing on enabling the individual to 'go within' and to discover the 'Higher Self', in Paganism there is a greater emphasis on the other, on that which is external to the self: the planet, the deities and the community."

— Religious studies scholar Christopher Partridge[55]

New Age communities sometimes observe and perform rituals during celestial events, but compared to practitioners of modern Paganism, this is inconsistent and less of a defining feature.[53] New Age practices usually take the form of relationships between specialists and clients and often involve meditation.[56] Placing less emphasis on serving a community, the primary focus in New Age teachings is on personal growth, especially the potential for an individual to reach a higher level of consciousness, and the ultimate goal is often to facilitate this shift.[57]

Some feminist modern Pagans share the New Age goal of finding an inner goddess and may refer to Jungian archetypes. This has led some to classify them as part of the New Age movement, which typically describes gods as creations of the human mind and not as discrete entities, although others view such feminist modern Pagans as differing from New Agers because they view the goddess as both internal and external.[58] One scholar (Douglas Ezzy) argues that "popularised Witchcraft", which he sets apart from initiatory traditions, should be classified as New Age rather than modern Pagan, because it focuses on the self, is not connected to established modern Pagan networks and is integrated with market forces. This view, however, is not universally shared among scholars of modern Paganism.[34]

Friction[]

Modern Pagans frequently seek to distance themselves from New Age identity and some communities use the term "New Age" as an insult.[59] Their recurring criticism of New Age ethos and practice includes accusations of charging too much money, of thinking in simplistic ways and of engaging in escapism.[60] They reject the common New Age metaphor of a battle between the forces of light and darkness, arguing that darkness represents a necessary part of the natural world which should not be viewed as evil.[61]

New Agers criticise modern Pagans for placing too much emphasis on the material world and for lacking a proper spiritual perspective.[62] There has been New Age criticism of how some modern Pagans embrace extravagant subcultures, such as adopting dark colour schemes and imagery.[60] People from both movements have accused the other of egocentrism and narcissism.[62]

See also[]

Notes[]

  1. ^ The origin of the word "pagan" in its religious meaning has been debated among scholars for centuries. No consensus exists.[2]
  2. ^ In addition to the diverse interpretations of modern Paganism, the terminology and spelling vary among practitioners and scholars alike. Other common names include "Neo-Paganism" and "contemporary Paganism".[7] The P is sometimes capitalised and sometimes not; some writers use lowercase P for ancient and uppercase P for modern religions.[6] Some scholars prefer to write "Paganisms" to reflect the diversity of the field.[7]
  3. ^ Melissa Harrington gives examples of books where this is the case: Modern Esoteric Spirituality (1992) edited by Faivre and Jacob Needleman, Access to Western Esotericism (1994) by Faivre, New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought (1996) by Hanegraaff and The New Age Movement: The Celebration of the Self and the Sacrilization of Modernity (1996) by Heelas.[36] Michael York mentions Lowell Streiker (1990), Peter Spink (1991), Heelas (1996), M. D. Faber (1996) and William Sims Bainbridge (1997).[37]
  4. ^ For example, Vivianne Crowley published a book in 1989 with the title Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Age. When it was republished in 1996, the title was changed to Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Millennium.[37]
  5. ^ In the United Kingdom, Wicca normally refers to particular initiatory lines, whereas in the United States it may refer to anyone who self-identifies as a witch. "Traditional" witchcraft in the United Kingdom refers to practices that precede Gerald Gardner's Wicca group, whereas in the United States it often refers to the initiatory lines of Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca.[45]

References[]

Citations[]

  1. ^ Bettini 2014, pp. 135–136.
  2. ^ Bettini 2014, pp. 135–136; Chuvin 2002, pp. 7–15.
  3. ^ Stuckrad 2007, p. 296.
  4. ^ Stuckrad 2007, pp. 296–297.
  5. ^ Strmiska 2005, pp. 42–43.
  6. ^ Jump up to: a b Rogers 2006, p. 1393.
  7. ^ Jump up to: a b Harrington 2007, p. 437.
  8. ^ Rogers 2006, pp. 1393, 1395; York 2011, p. 185.
  9. ^ Jump up to: a b York 2011, pp. 183–184.
  10. ^ Hammer 2006, p. 1313.
  11. ^ Jump up to: a b Hammer 2006, p. 1314.
  12. ^ Pike 2004, p. 24; York 2011, p. 183.
  13. ^ Pike 2004, p. 27.
  14. ^ Hanegraaff 1996, p. 119; Harrington 2007, pp. 437–438.
  15. ^ Jump up to: a b York 2011, p. 185.
  16. ^ Pike 2004, pp. 22–23.
  17. ^ Pike 2004, p. 23.
  18. ^ Pike 2004, p. 23; York 2011, pp. 184–185.
  19. ^ Pike 2004, p. ix.
  20. ^ Pike 2004, p. 26; York 2011, pp. 183–185.
  21. ^ Stuckrad 2014, pp. 153–154.
  22. ^ Stuckrad 2014, p. 153.
  23. ^ Stuckrad 2014, p. 154.
  24. ^ Partridge 2004, p. 78.
  25. ^ Jump up to: a b c Pike 2004, p. 19.
  26. ^ Pike 2004, pp. xi, 68, 73.
  27. ^ Pike 2004, pp. vii.
  28. ^ Pike 2004, pp. vii, xi, 19.
  29. ^ Pike 2004, pp. 35–36.
  30. ^ Jump up to: a b York 2004, p. 224.
  31. ^ Publishers Weekly 2001.
  32. ^ Alexander & Russell 2007, pp. 178–185.
  33. ^ Harrington 2007, p. 448.
  34. ^ Jump up to: a b Harrington 2007, pp. 448–449.
  35. ^ Jump up to: a b Harrington 2007, pp. 437–438, 441; York 2011, p. 183.
  36. ^ Harrington 2007, pp. 437–438, 441.
  37. ^ Jump up to: a b c d York 2011, p. 183.
  38. ^ Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 77–78.
  39. ^ Hanegraaff 1996, pp. 79–80, 85–86.
  40. ^ Kelly 1990, p. 311; Kelly 1992, p. 136, quoted in Hanegraaff (1996, p. 78)
  41. ^ Hanegraaff 1996, p. 78.
  42. ^ Hanegraaff 1996, p. 79.
  43. ^ Harrington 2007, p. 441.
  44. ^ Jump up to: a b Harrington 2007, p. 438.
  45. ^ Jump up to: a b Harrington 2007, p. 445.
  46. ^ Jump up to: a b Harrington 2007, p. 443.
  47. ^ Jump up to: a b Pike 2004, p. 18; York 2011, pp. 183–184.
  48. ^ Jump up to: a b c York 2011, p. 184.
  49. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Harrington 2007, p. 442.
  50. ^ Harrington 2007, p. 442; York 2011, p. 184.
  51. ^ Harrington 2007, pp. 441–442.
  52. ^ York 2011, pp. 184–185.
  53. ^ Jump up to: a b Pike 2004, p. 21.
  54. ^ Harrington 2007, p. 444.
  55. ^ Partridge 2004, p. 79.
  56. ^ Pike 2004, pp. 18, 23; York 2011, p. 185.
  57. ^ Pike 2004, pp. 18, 23; York 2011, p. 183.
  58. ^ Harrington 2007, pp. 443–444.
  59. ^ Harvey 2004, p. 245; Partridge 2004, p. 78.
  60. ^ Jump up to: a b Pike 2004, p. 22.
  61. ^ Partridge 2004, p. 79; York 1995, p. 123.
  62. ^ Jump up to: a b York 1995, p. 167.

Sources[]

  • Alexander, Brooks; Russell, Jeffrey (2007) [1980]. A New History of Witchcraft: Sorcerers, Heretics and Pagans (Revised ed.). London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-28634-0.
  • Bettini, Maurizio (2014). Elogio del politeismo. Quello che possiamo imparare oggi dale religioni antiche [In praise of polytheism. What we can learn from ancient religions] (in Italian). Bologna: Il Mulino. ISBN 978-88-15-25097-1.
  • Chuvin, Pierre (2002). "Sur les origines de l'équation paganus = païen" [On the origins of the equation paganus = pagan]. In Lionel, Mary; Sot, Michel (eds.). Impies et païens entre Antiquité et Moyen Age [Impious people and pagans between Antiquity and the Middle Ages]. Textes, images et monuments de l'Antiquité au Haut Moyen Âge (in French). Paris: Picard. ISBN 978-2-7084-0670-4.
  • Hammer, Olav (2006). "New Age". In Stuckrad, Kocku von (ed.). The Brill Dictionary of Religion. 3. Leiden and Boston: Brill. doi:10.1163/1872-5287_bdr_COM_00308. ISBN 978-90-04-12431-8.
  • Hanegraaff, Wouter (1996). New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. Leiden, New York and Cologne: Brill. doi:10.1163/9789004378933. ISBN 978-90-04-10696-3.
  • Harrington, Melissa (2007). "Paganism and the New Age". In Kemp, Daren; Lewis, James R. (eds.). Handbook of New Age. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Leiden and Boston: Brill. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004153554.i-484.151. ISBN 978-90-04-15355-4.
  • Harvey, Graham (2004). "Pagan Studies or the Study of Paganisms? A Case Study in the Study of Religions". In Blain, Jenny; Ezzy, Douglas; Harvey, Graham (eds.). Researching Paganisms. The Pagan studies series. Walnut Creek, California and Oxford: AltaMira Press. ISBN 978-0-7591-0523-2.
  • Kelly, Aidan A. (1990). "Neo-pagans and the New Age". In Melton, J. Gordon; Clark, Jerome; Kelly, Aidan K. (eds.). New Age Encyclopedia. Detroit, Michigan: Gale Research. ISBN 978-0-8103-7159-0.
  • Kelly, Aidan A. (1992). "An Update on Neopagan Witchcraft in America". In Lewis, James R.; Melton, J. Gordon (eds.). Perspectives on the New Age. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1213-8.
  • Partridge, Christopher (2004). The Re-Enchantment of the West. Volume 1: Alternative Spiritualities, Sacralization, Popular Culture, and Occulture. London: T&T Clark International. ISBN 978-0-567-08408-8.
  • Pike, Sarah M. (2004). New Age and Neopagan Religions in America. Columbia Contemporary American Religion Series. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-12402-3.
  • "Nonfiction Book Review: Goddess Initiation by Francesca De Grandis". Publishers Weekly. 27 August 2001. Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 7 June 2021.
  • Rogers, Matthew D. (2006). "Paganism / Neopaganism". In Stuckrad, Kocku von (ed.). The Brill Dictionary of Religion. 3. Leiden and Boston: Brill. doi:10.1163/1872-5287_bdr_COM_00332. ISBN 978-90-04-12431-8.
  • Strmiska, Michael (2005). Modern Paganism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives. Santa Barbara, Dencer, and Oxford: ABC-Clio. ISBN 978-1-85109-608-4.
  • Stuckrad, Kocku von (2007). "Heidentum" [Paganism]. In Jaeger, Friedrich (ed.). Enzyklopädie der Neuzeit [Encyclopedia of the modern period] (in German). 5. Stuttgart and Weimar: Verlag J.B. Metzler. doi:10.1163/2352-0248_edn_COM_278940. ISBN 978-3-476-01995-0.
  • Stuckrad, Kocku von (2014). The Scientification of Religion: An Historical Study of Discursive Change, 1800–2000. Berlin and Boston: De Gruyter. doi:10.1515/9781614513490. ISBN 978-1-61451-626-2.
  • York, Michael (1995). The Emerging Network: A Sociology of the New Age and Neo-pagan Movements. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-8476-8000-2.
  • York, Michael (2004). "Gaia". In Clarke, Peter B. (ed.). Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26707-6.
  • York, Michael (2011) [2002]. "Neo-Paganism and the New Age". In Rabinovitch, Shelley (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism (2nd ed.). Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall Hunt Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7575-9078-8.

Further reading[]

  • Ezzy, Douglas (2003). "New Age Witchcraft? Popular Spell Books and the Re-Enchantment of Everyday Life". Culture and Religion. 4 (1): 47–65. doi:10.1080/01438300302813. S2CID 144927811.
  • Pearson, Joanne (1998). "Assumed Affinities: Wicca and the New Age Religiosity". In Pearson, Joanne; Roberts, Richard H.; Samuel, Geoffrey (eds.). Nature Religion Today: Paganism in the Modern World. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 45–56. ISBN 978-0-7486-1057-0.
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