Nationalist Movement Party

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Nationalist Movement Party
Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi
AbbreviationMHP
PresidentDevlet Bahçeli
General Secretary [tr]
FounderAlparslan Türkeş
Founded9 February 1969; 52 years ago (1969-02-09) 24 January 1993; 28 years ago (1993-01-24) (re-establishment)
Preceded byRepublican Villagers Nation Party
HeadquartersEhlibeyt Mh. Ceyhun Atuf Kansu Cd No:128, 06105 Ankara, Turkey
Paramilitary wingGrey Wolves (unofficial)
Membership (2021)Decrease 475,338[1]
IdeologyTurkish ultranationalism[2][3][4][5]
Cultural nationalism[5][6][7]
Social conservatism[8]
National conservatism[9]
Right-wing populism[10][11]
Anti-communism
Nine Lights Doctrine
Euroscepticism[12]
Pan-Turkism[13]
Turanism[14]
Political positionFar-right[15][16][17]
National affiliationPeople's Alliance
Colours    Red, White (official)
  Ruby red (customary)
SloganÜlkenin Geleceğine Oy Ver ("Vote for the Country's Future")
Grand National Assembly
48 / 600
Metropolitan municipalities
1 / 30
District municipalities
233 / 1,351
Provincial councillors
188 / 1,251
Municipal Assemblies
2,819 / 20,498
Party flag
Flag of the Nationalist Movement Party
Website
www.mhp.org.tr

The Nationalist Movement Party (alternatively translated as Nationalist Action Party; Turkish: Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi, MHP) is a Turkish far-right political party that adheres to Turkish ultranationalism and Euroscepticism. The group is often described as neo-fascist,[18][19][20][21][22] and has been linked to some violent paramilitaries[23] and organized crime groups. The party is represented by 48 MPs, which supports the AKP government. Its leader is Devlet Bahçeli.

The party was formed in 1969 by former Turkish Army colonel Alparslan Türkeş, who had become leader of the Republican Villagers Nation Party (CKMP) in 1965. The party mainly followed a Pan-Turkist and Turkish nationalist political agenda throughout the latter half of the 20th century. Devlet Bahçeli took over after Türkeş's death in 1997. The party's youth wing is the Grey Wolves (Bozkurtlar) organization, which is also known as the "Nationalist Hearths" (Ülkü Ocakları) which contributed to the political violence in Turkey in the 1970s.[citation needed]

Alparslan Türkeş founded the party after criticizing the Republican People's Party (CHP) for moving too far away from the nationalist principles of their founder Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, claiming that he would not have founded the MHP had the CHP not deviated from Atatürk's ideology.[24] The MHP won enough seats in the 1973 and 1977 general election to take part in the "Nationalist Front" governments during the 1970s. The party was banned following the 1980 coup, but reestablished with its original name in 1993. After Türkeş's death and the election of Devlet Bahçeli as his successor, the party won 18% of the vote and 129 seats in the 1999 general election, its best ever result. Bahçeli subsequently became Deputy Prime Minister after entering a coalition with the Democratic Left Party (DSP) and the Motherland Party (ANAP), though his calls for an early election resulted in the government's collapse in 2002. In the 2002 general election, the MHP fell below the 10% election threshold and lost all of its parliamentary representation after the newly formed Justice and Development Party (AKP) won a plurality.

After the 2007 general election, in which the MHP won back its parliamentary representation with 14.27% of the vote, the party has strongly opposed the peace negotiations between the government and the Kurdistan Workers Party and used to be fiercely critical of the governing AKP over government corruption and authoritarianism. Nevertheless, the MHP has often been referred to by critics as the "AKP's lifeline", having covertly helped the AKP in situations such as the 2007 presidential election, repealing the headscarf ban, and the June–July 2015 parliamentary speaker elections.[25] Since 2015, Bahçeli has been openly supporting Erdogan and the AKP. This caused a schism within the party, resulting in Meral Akşener leaving MHP to found the center-right İYİ Party. The MHP supported a 'Yes' vote in the 2017 referendum, and formed the People's Alliance electoral pact with the AKP for the 2018 Turkish general election.[26] MHP currently supports a minority government lead by the AKP.

History[]

MHP Headquarters in Balgat, Ankara

Before 1980[]

In 1965, nationalist politician and ex-Colonel Alparslan Türkeş, who had trained in the United States for NATO, founded the Turkish Gladio Special Warfare Department, gained control of the conservative rural Republican Villagers Nation Party (Turkish: Cumhuriyetçi Köylü Millet Partisi, CKMP). During an Extraordinary Great Congress held at Adana in Turkey on 1969, Türkeş changed the name of the party to the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP) and with the support of Dündar Taşer, a party logo depicting the three crescent was elected.[27]

The MHP embraced Turkish nationalism, and under the leadership of Türkeş, militias connected to the party were responsible for assassinating numerous left-wing intellectuals and academics, including some Kurds, during the 1970s.[28] The leader of the party's youth wing, known as the Grey Wolves after Turkic mythology, claimed that they had an intelligence organization that was superior to the state's own.[29]

On the other hand, MHP had links to the Aydınlar Ocağı (AO; "Hearth of Intellectuals"), a right-wing think tank launched in 1970 by established university professors, which served as a connecting link between secular-conservative, nationalist and Islamic rightists, promoting the ideology of Turkish-Islamic synthesis. AO's ideas, which have been compared to those of the French Nouvelle Droite, had a determining influence on MHP's programmes and served to lend the far-right party a more legitimate, respectable appearance.[30]

The MHP won enough seats in the 1973 and 1977 general election to take part in the "Nationalist Front" governments during the 1970s. The party infiltrated the bureaucracy during these governments during the height of the political violence between rightists and leftists. On May 27, 1980, the party's deputy leader and former government minister Gün Sazak was assassinated by members of the Marxist–Leninist militant group Revolutionary Left (Turkish: Devrimci Sol or Dev Sol) in front of his home.[31]

When the Turkish army seized power on September 12, 1980, in a violent coup d'état led by General Kenan Evren, the party was banned, along with all other active political parties at the time, and many of its leading members were imprisoned. Many party members joined the neoliberal Anavatan Partisi[citation needed] or various Islamist parties. Party member (Agâh Oktay Güner) noted that the party's ideology was in power while its members were in prison.

Re-establishment[]

The party was reformed in 1983 under the name "Conservative Party" (Turkish: Muhafazakar Parti). After 1985, however, the name was changed to the "Nationalist Task Party" (Turkish: Milliyetçi Çalışma Partisi) then back again to its former name in 1992.[32] In 1993, Muhsin Yazıcıoğlu and five other deputies separated and founded the Great Union Party, which is an Islamist party.[32]

Devlet Bahçeli[]

After Türkeş's death, Devlet Bahçeli was elected his successor. The party won 18% of the vote and 129 seats in the election that followed, in 1999, its best ever result. Bahçeli subsequently became Deputy Prime Minister after entering a coalition with the Democratic Left Party (DSP) and the Motherland Party (ANAP), though his calls for an early election resulted in the government's collapse in 2002. In the subsiquent 2002 general election, the MHP fell below the 10% election threshold and lost all of its parliamentary representation after the newly formed Justice and Development Party (AKP) won a plurality.

After the 2007 general election, in which the MHP won back its parliamentary representation with 14.27% of the vote, the party has strongly opposed the peace negotiations between the government and the Kurdistan Workers Party and used to be fiercely critical of the governing AKP over government corruption and authoritarianism. Nevertheless, the MHP has often been referred to by critics as the "AKP's lifeline", having covertly helped the AKP in situations such as the 2007 presidential election, repealing the headscarf ban, and the June–July 2015 parliamentary speaker elections.[25] Since 2015, Bahçeli has been openly supporting Erdogan and the AKP. This caused a schism within the party, resulting in Meral Akşener leaving MHP to found the center-right İYİ Party. The MHP supported a 'Yes' vote in the 2017 referendum, and formed the People's Alliance electoral pact with the AKP for the 2018 Turkish general election.[26] MHP currently supports a minority government lead by the AKP.

Ideology[]

The MHP's view represents the Nine-Light doctrine, based on Turkish nationalism shaped by Islam. The MHP used to be described as a neo-fascist party[30][19] linked to extremist and violent militias.[23] Since the 1990s it has, under the leadership of Devlet Bahçeli, gradually moderated its programme, turning from ethnic to cultural nationalism and conservatism and stressing the unitary nature of the Turkish state. Notably, it has moved from strict, Kemalist-style secularism to a more pro-Islamic stance, and has – at least in public statements – accepted the rules of parliamentary democracy. Some scholars[who?] doubt the sincerity and credibility of this turn and suspect the party of still pursuing a neo-fascist agenda behind a more moderate and pro-democratic façade. Nevertheless, MHP's mainstream overture has strongly increased its appeal to voters and it has grown to the country's third-strongest party,[33] continuously represented in the National Assembly since 2007 with voter shares well above the 10% threshold.

Opposition to the HDP[]

Flags of political parties before the Turkish municipal elections in Şile, Turkey. The most visible ones are MHP and AKP (Justice and Development Party) flags.

Due to their ideological differences, the MHP is strongly opposed to any form of dialogue with the left-wing Kurdish nationalist Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP), which Devlet Bahçeli has often opposed by voting against in Parliament. A notable example was in the June–July 2015 parliamentary speaker elections, where the MHP declared that they would not support any candidate and cast blank votes after the HDP announced support for the Republican People's Party (CHP) candidate Deniz Baykal. The MHP also ruled out any prospect of a coalition government that receives support from the HDP after the June 2015 general election resulted in a hung parliament, even rejecting CHP leader Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu's offer of Bahçeli becoming Prime Minister in such a coalition.[34] MHP deputy leader Celal Adan claimed that 'even using our party's name in the same sentence as the HDP will be counted as cruelty by us.'[35]

In early September 2015, the MHP and the HDP both voted against the new interim election government ministers from taking their oaths of office, causing speculation of whether the MHP was dropping their harsh stance against the HDP.[36] However, downplayed any notions of an alliance between the two parties, stating that "a broken clock will still show the correct time once a day, the HDP can sometimes take a correct decision in Parliament. Showing this as a 'MHP-HDP coalition' is a deliberate diversion."[37] In 2021 Bahçeli has demanded the closure of the HDP in several speeches, a move that is considered un-democratic and authoritarian.[38][39]

Economic policies[]

During the June 2015 Turkish general election, the MHP announced a new economic manifesto. The MHP promised to improve the situation of Turkey’s working poor by lifting taxes on diesel and fertiliser, raising the net minimum wage to $518, giving a $37 transportation subsidy to every minimum wage worker, and giving those who cannot afford a house an additional $92 per month in rental aid. The MHP said these policies would allow a minimum wage earner living in a big city to earn as much an extra $646 annually.

The MHP stated that their economic policies would create 700,000 jobs, increase the national income per person to $13.3K, and increase exports to $238 billion while keeping annual growth at 5.2 percent between 2016 and 2019, although this did not occur, as the GDP per capita and standard of living plummeted in Turkey from 12,614 USD in 2014 to 9,126 in 2019.[40][41][42][43]

Controversies[]

In July 2015, amidst a wave of protests against the Xinjiang conflict, MHP-affiliated Ülkücü attacked South Korean tourists on Istanbul's Sultanahmet Square.[44] In an interview with Turkish columnist Ahmet Hakan, MHP leader Devlet Bahçeli played the attacks down,[45] stating that "These are young kids. They may have been provoked. Plus, how are you going to differentiate between Korean and Chinese? They both have slanted eyes. Does it really matter?"[46] Bahceli's remarks were widely considered racist, and together with a banner reading "We crave Chinese blood" at the Ülkücü Istanbul headquarters, the affair caused an uproar in both Turkish and international media.[46]

Party leaders[]

# Leader
(birth–death) 		Portrait Constituency Took office Left office
1 Alparslan Türkeş
(1917–1997) 		Ankara (1965)
Adana (1969, 1973, 1977)
Yozgat (1991) 		8 February 1969 4 April 1997
– (acting) 5 April 1997 6 July 1997
2 Devlet Bahçeli
(1948– ) 		Devlet Bahçeli ve Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu (cropped).jpg
Osmaniye (1999, 2007, 2011, Jun/Nov 2015) 		6 July 1997 incumbent

[47] deputies,[48][third-party source needed]

Election results[]

General elections[]

Flags of political parties before the Turkish municipal elections in Şile, Istanbul, March 2009
The MHP holding its electoral rally in Ankara, May 2015
Grand National Assembly of Turkey
Election date Party leader Number of votes received Percentage of votes Number of deputies
1969 Alparslan Türkeş 274,225 3.02%
3 / 450
1973 Alparslan Türkeş 362,208 3.38%
3 / 450
1977 Alparslan Türkeş 951,544 6.42%
16 / 450
1995[49] Alparslan Türkeş 2,301,343 8.18%
0 / 550
1999[50] Devlet Bahçeli 5,606,634 17.98%
129 / 550
2002[51] Devlet Bahçeli 2,629,808 8.35%
0 / 550
2007[52] Devlet Bahçeli 5,001,869 14.27%
71 / 550
2011[53] Devlet Bahçeli 5,585,513 13.01%
53 / 550
June 2015 Devlet Bahçeli 7,516,480 16.29%
80 / 550
November 2015 Devlet Bahçeli 5,599,600 11.90%
40 / 550
2018 Devlet Bahçeli 5,564,103 11.10%
49 / 600

Senate elections[]

Senate of the Republic (1960–1980)
Election date Party leader Number of votes received Percentage of votes Number of senators
1973 Alparslan Türkeş 114,662 2.7%
0 / 52
1975 Alparslan Türkeş 170,357 3.2%
0 / 54
1977 Alparslan Türkeş 326,967 6.8%
0 / 50
1979 Alparslan Türkeş 312,241 6.1%
1 / 50

Local elections[]

Election date Party leader Provincial council votes Percentage of votes Number of municipalities
1973 Alparslan Türkeş 133,089 1.33% 5
1977 Alparslan Türkeş 819,136 6.62% 55
1994 Alparslan Türkeş 2,239,117 7.95% 118
1999 Devlet Bahçeli 5,401,597 17.17% 499
2004 Devlet Bahçeli 3,372,249 10.45% 247
2009 Devlet Bahçeli 6,386,279 15.97% 484
2014 Devlet Bahçeli 7,399,119 17.82% 166
2019 Devlet Bahçeli 3,209,416 7.46% 233

See also[]

References[]

  1. ^ "Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi" (in Turkish). Yargıtay Cumhuriyet Başsavcılığı. Retrieved January 15, 2021.
  2. ^ Arman, Murat Necip (2007). "The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism". CEU Political Science Journal (2): 133–151.
  3. ^ Eissenstat, Howard. (November 2002). Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism. Middle East Studies Association Conference. Washington, D.C.
  4. ^ Tachau, Frank. (1963). "The Search for National Identity among the Turks". Die Welt des Islams. New Series. 8 (3): 165–176.
  5. ^ Jump up to: a b Cook, Steven A. (2012). "Recent History: The Rise of the Justice and Development Party". U.S.-Turkey Relations: A New Partnership to. Council on Foreign Relations: 52.
  6. ^ Göçek, Fatma Müge (2011). "The Transformation of Turkey: Redefining State and Society from the Ottoman Empire to the Modern Era". I.B. Tauris: 56. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  7. ^ Tocci, Nathalie (2012). "Turkey and the European Union". The Routledge Handbook of Modern Turkey. Routledge: 241.
  8. ^ Celep, Ödül (2010). "Turkey's Radical Right and the Kurdish Issue: The MHP's Reaction to the "Democratic Opening"". Insight Turkey. 12 (2).
  9. ^ Carkoglu, Ali (2004). Turkey and the European Union: Domestic Politics, Economic Integration and International Dynamics. Routledge. p. 127.
  10. ^ Farnen, Russell F., ed. (2004). Nationalism, Ethnicity, and Identity: Cross National and Comparative Perspectives. Transaction Secularism Publishers. p. 252. ISBN 9781412829366. ..the nationalist-fascist Turkish National Movement Party (MHP).
  11. ^ Abadan-Unat, Nermin (2011). Turks in Europe: From Guest Worker to Transnational Citizen. New York: Berghahn Books. p. 19. ISBN 9781845454258. ...the fascist Nationalist Movement Party...
  12. ^ "Euroscepticism: Party Ideology Meets Strategy".
  13. ^ "MHP to start rallies against Kurdish terrorist movement on Dec 13". Today's Zaman. 4 December 2009. Archived from the original on 4 January 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
  14. ^ Söyler, Mehtap (2015). The Turkish Deep State: State Consolidation, Civil-Military Relations and Democracy. Routledge. p. 119. ISBN 9781317668800.
  15. ^ "Turkish far right on the rise". The Independent. 20 April 1999. Archived from the original on 14 October 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
  16. ^ Avcı, Gamze (September 2011). "The Nationalist Movement Party's Euroscepticism: Party Ideology Meets Strategy" (PDF). South European Society and Politics. Routledge. 16 (3): 435–447. doi:10.1080/13608746.2011.598359. ISSN 1743-9612. S2CID 154513216. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 May 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2015.
  17. ^ Çınar, Alev; Burak Arıkan (2002). "The Nationalist Action Party: Representing the State, the Nation or the Nationalists?". In Barry Rubin & Metin Heper (ed.). Political Parties in Turkey. Londra: Routledge. p. 25. ISBN 0714652741.
  18. ^ Arıkan, E. Burak (1999). The Programme of the Nationalist Action Party: An Iron Hand in a Velvet Glove?. Turkey Before and After Atatürk. Frank Cass. p. 122.
  19. ^ Jump up to: a b Jacoby, Tim (2012). Fascism, Civility and the Crisis of the Turkish State. Political Civility in the Middle East. Routledge. p. 112.
  20. ^ globalsecurity Nationalist Movement Party https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/europe/tu-political-party-mhp.htm
  21. ^ "Grey Wolves, Turkey's neo-fascist group that is banned in France |".
  22. ^ https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:c9393a5e-ac9a-4641-ab0a-91d4ea4f7477/download_file?file_format=pdf&safe_filename=Erkin_thesis.pdf&type_of_work=Thesis
  23. ^ Jump up to: a b Sullivan, Colleen (2011). Grey Wolves. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Terrorism (Second ed.). Sage. p. 236.
  24. ^ "Biz Kimiz? – Ahmet Şefki Kuzulu - Ülkü Ocakları Eğitim ve Kültür Vakfı". Archived from the original on 2017-03-02. Retrieved 2015-11-16.
  25. ^ Jump up to: a b "Levent Gök: MHP'nin, AKP'ye can simidi olduğuna herkes tanık oldu". 30 July 2015.
  26. ^ Jump up to: a b "Erdogan's AKP says to ally with nationalists for 2019 elections". Reuters. 21 February 2018.
  27. ^ Uzer, Umut (2016). An Intellectual History of Turkish Nationalism: Between Turkish Ethnicity and Islamic Identity. University of Utah Press. p. 198. ISBN 978-1-60781-465-8.
  28. ^ Desmond Fernandes and Iskender Ozden (Spring 2001). "United States and NATO inspired 'psychological warfare operations' against the 'Kurdish communist threat' in Turkey" (PDF). Variant. 2 (12): 10–16. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 5, 2009.
  29. ^ Değer, M. Emin (1978). CIA, Kontrgerilla ve Türkiye (in Turkish). Ankara: Kendi Yayını. p. 119. MHP lideri Türkeş, Ülkü Ocaklarını meşru müdafaa yaptığını söyler. Ülkü Ocakları Genel Başkanı da, 'bizim istihbarat örgütümüz devletin örgütünden güçlüdür' demektedir. Quoted in "Susurluk'ta bütün yollar, devlete uğrayarak CIA'ya çıkar". Kurtuluş Yolu (in Turkish). 4 (39). 2008-09-19. Archived from the original on 2009-05-19. Retrieved 2008-11-04.
  30. ^ Jump up to: a b Arıkan, E. Burak (1999). The Programme of the Nationalist Action Party: An Iron Hand in a Velvet Glove?. Turkey Before and After Atatürk. Frank Cass. pp. 122–125.
  31. ^ "MİT'ten 1 Mayıs ve Gün Sazak yanıtı". Hürriyet (in Turkish). 2013-01-16. Retrieved 2014-02-11.
  32. ^ Jump up to: a b https://web.archive.org/web/20100817200019/http://www.mhp.org.tr/mhp_tarihce.php. Archived from the original on August 17, 2010. Retrieved June 10, 2010. Missing or empty |title= (help)[better source needed]
  33. ^ Davies, Peter; Jackson, Paul (2008). The Far Right in Europe: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood. p. 358.
  34. ^ "Kılıçdaroğlu'ndan Bahçeli'ye: AKP'nin koltuk değnekçisi!".
  35. ^ "'Partimiz ile HDP'nin aynı cümle içinde kullanılmasını bile zul sayarız'". Archived from the original on 2015-11-17. Retrieved 2015-11-16.
  36. ^ "CHP, MHP ve HDP aynı oyu verdi, TBMM'de yemin krizi çıktı".
  37. ^ "MHP'den HDP ile ilgili 'ittifak' açıklaması".
  38. ^ "Bahçeli urges constitutional changes in repeated call for pro-Kurdish HDP closure". Ahval. Retrieved 2021-03-04.
  39. ^ "Turkey's Opposition HDP Faces Ban | Voice of America - English". www.voanews.com. Retrieved 2021-03-04.
  40. ^ "GDP per capita (Current US$) - Turkey | Data".
  41. ^ https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/81736/1/619933046.pdf
  42. ^ Leezenberg, Michiel (2016). "The ambiguities of democratic autonomy: The Kurdish movement in Turkey and Rojava". Southeast European and Black Sea Studies. 16 (4): 671–690. doi:10.1080/14683857.2016.1246529. S2CID 151880489.
  43. ^ https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/104951/1/MPRA_paper_104951.pdf
  44. ^ "Koreans and Chinese 'both have slanted eyes,' Turkey's nationalist leader says over attacks on tourists". Hürriyet Daily News. 6 July 2015. Retrieved 24 November 2015.
  45. ^ Ahmet Hakan (8 July 2015). "Koreans and Chinese 'both have slanted eyes,' Turkey's nationalist leader says over attacks on tourists". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 24 November 2015.
  46. ^ Jump up to: a b Pinar Tremblay (20 July 2015). "Attacks on Chinese escalate in Turkey". Al Monitor. Retrieved 24 November 2015.
  47. ^ "SEÇİM SONUÇLARI - 2015 genel seçim sonuçları".
  48. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-08-27. Retrieved 2013-01-11.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  49. ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20110723024542/http://www.belgenet.net/ayrinti.php?yil_id=12. Archived from the original on July 23, 2011. Retrieved June 10, 2010. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  50. ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20110720033123/http://www.belgenet.net/ayrinti.php?yil_id=13. Archived from the original on July 20, 2011. Retrieved June 10, 2010. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  51. ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20110723024612/http://www.belgenet.net/ayrinti.php?yil_id=14. Archived from the original on July 23, 2011. Retrieved June 10, 2010. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  52. ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20110720033159/http://www.belgenet.net/ayrinti.php?yil_id=15. Archived from the original on July 20, 2011. Retrieved June 10, 2010. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  53. ^ T.C. Yüksek Seçim Kurulu Başkanlığı (Supreme Election Board) (22 June 2011). "Karar No 1070 (Decision No. 1070)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 October 2014.

Further reading[]

  • Arıkan, E. Burak (1999). The Programme of the Nationalist Action Party: An Iron Hand in a Velvet Glove?. Turkey Before and After Atatürk. Frank Cass. pp. 120–134.
  • Arıkan, Ekin Burak (2012). Turkish extreme right in office: whither democracy and democratization?. Mapping the Extreme Right in Contemporary Europe: From Local to Transnational. Routledge. pp. 225–238.
  • Başkan, Filiz (January 2006). "Globalization and Nationalism: The Nationalist Action Party of Turkey". Nationalism and Ethnic Politics. 12 (1): 83–105. doi:10.1080/13537110500503877. S2CID 145620087.

External links[]

Retrieved from ""