Petroglyph

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Petroglyph (disambiguation).
"Rock carving" redirects here. For other uses, see Rock art.
Rock art in Iran, Teimareh region
Rock carving known as Meerkatze (named by archaeologist Leo Frobenius), rampant lionesses in Wadi Mathendous, Mesak Settafet region of Libya.
European petroglyphs: Laxe dos carballos in Campo Lameiro, Galicia, Spain (4th–2nd millennium BCE), depicting cup and ring marks and deer hunting scenes
Petroglyph of a camel; Negev, southern Israel.
Reclining Buddha at Gal Vihara, Sri Lanka. The image house that originally enclosed the remains can be seen.
Petroglyphs of the archaeological site of Las Labradas, situated on the coast of the municipality of San Ignacio (Mexican state of Sinaloa)

A petroglyph is an image created by removing part of a rock surface by incising, picking, carving, or abrading, as a form of rock art. Outside North America, scholars often use terms such as "carving", "engraving", or other descriptions of the technique to refer to such images. Petroglyphs are found worldwide, and are often associated with prehistoric peoples. The word comes from the Greek prefix petro-, from πέτρα petra meaning "stone", and γλύφω glýphō meaning "carve", and was originally coined in French as pétroglyphe.

Another form of petroglyph, normally found in literate cultures, a rock relief or rock-cut relief is a relief sculpture carved on "living rock" such as a cliff, rather than a detached piece of stone. While these relief carvings are a category of rock art, sometimes found in conjunction with rock-cut architecture,[1] they tend to be omitted in most works on rock art, which concentrate on engravings and paintings by prehistoric or nonliterate cultures. Some of these reliefs exploit the rock's natural properties to define an image. Rock reliefs have been made in many cultures, especially in the ancient Near East.[2] Rock reliefs are generally fairly large, as they need to be to make an impact in the open air. Most have figures that are larger than life-size.

Stylistically, a culture's rock relief carvings relate to other types of sculpture from period concerned. Except for Hittite and Persian examples, they are generally discussed as part of the culture's sculptural practice.[3] The vertical relief is most common, but reliefs on essentially horizontal surfaces are also found. The term relief typically excludes relief carvings inside natural or human-made caves, that are common in India. Natural rock formations made into statues or other sculpture in the round, most famously at the Great Sphinx of Giza, are also usually excluded. Reliefs on large boulders left in their natural location, like the Hittite İmamkullu relief, are likely to be included, but smaller boulders described as stele or carved orthostats.

In scholarly texts, a petroglyph is a rock engraving, whereas a petrograph is a rock painting. In common usage, the two words are synonymous.[4][5][6] Both types of image belong to the wider and more general category of rock art or parietal art. Petroforms, or patterns and shapes made by many large rocks and boulders over the ground, are also quite different. Inuksuit are also not petroglyphs, they are human-made rock forms found only in the Arctic region.

History[]

Composite image of petroglyphs from Scandinavia (Häljesta, Västmanland in Sweden). Nordic Bronze Age. The glyphs have been painted to make them more visible.
A petroglyph of a caravan of bighorn sheep near Moab, Utah, United States; a common theme in glyphs from the desert Southwest and Great Basin

Petroglyphs have been found in all parts of the globe except Antarctica, with highest concentrations in parts of Africa, Scandinavia, Siberia, southwestern North America, and Australia;[citation needed] many examples of petroglyphs found globally are dated to approximately the Neolithic and late Upper Paleolithic boundary (roughly 10,000 to 12,000 years ago), though some, such as those found at Kamyana Mohyla, were created earlier than this; some petroglyph sites in Australia are estimated to date back 27,000 years, and other examples of petroglyphs are estimated to be as old as 40,000 years.[citation needed]

Around 7,000 to 9,000 years ago, following the introduction of a number of precursors of writing systems, the existence and creation of petroglyphs began to suffer and tail off, with different forms of art, such as pictographs and ideograms, taking their place. However, petroglyphs continued to be created and remained somewhat common, with various cultures continuing to use them for differing lengths of time, including cultures who continued to create them until contact with Western culture was made in the 19th and 20th centuries.[citation needed]

Interpretation[]

Many hypotheses exist as to the purpose of petroglyphs, depending on their location, age, and subject matter. Some petroglyph images most likely held a deep cultural and religious significance for the societies that created them. Many petroglyphs are thought to represent a type of symbolic or ritualistic language or communication style that remains not fully understood. Others, such as , more clearly depict or represent a landform or the surrounding terrain, such as rivers and other geographic features.

Some petroglyph maps, depicting trails, as well as containing symbols communicating the time and distances travelled along those trails, exist; other petroglyph maps act as astronomical markers. As well as holding geographic and astronomical importance, other petroglyphs may also have been a by-product of various rituals: sites in India, for example, have seen some petroglyphs identified as musical instruments or "rock gongs".[7]

Some petroglyphs likely formed types of symbolic communication, such as types of proto-writing. Later glyphs from the Nordic Bronze Age in Scandinavia seem to refer to some form of territorial boundary between tribes, in addition to holding possible religious meanings. Petroglyph styles have been recognised as having local or regional "dialects" from similar or neighboring peoples. loosely resemble an early form of runes, although no direct relationship has been established.

Petroglyphs from different continents show similarities. While people would be inspired by their direct surroundings, it is harder to explain the common styles. This could be mere coincidence, an indication that certain groups of people migrated widely from some initial common area, or indication of a common origin. In 1853, George Tate presented a paper to the Berwick Naturalists' Club, at which a John Collingwood Bruce agreed that the carvings had "... a common origin, and indicate a symbolic meaning, representing some popular thought."[8] In his cataloguing of Scottish rock art, Ronald Morris summarized 104 different theories on their interpretation.[9]

More controversial explanations of similarities are grounded in Jungian psychology and the views of Mircea Eliade. According to these theories it is possible that the similarity of petroglyphs (and other atavistic or archetypal symbols) from different cultures and continents is a result of the genetically inherited structure of the human brain.

Other theories suggest that petroglyphs were carved by spiritual leaders, such as shamans, in an altered state of consciousness,[10] perhaps induced by the use of natural hallucinogens. Many of the geometric patterns (known as form constants) which recur in petroglyphs and cave paintings have been shown by David Lewis-Williams to be hardwired into the human brain. They frequently occur in visual disturbances and hallucinations brought on by drugs, migraine, and other stimuli.

Recent analysis of surveyed and GPS-logged petroglyphs around the world has identified commonalities indicating pre-historic (7,000–3,000 BCE) intense auroras, or natural light display in the sky, observable across the continents.[11][12]

The Rock Art Research Institute (RARI) of the University of the Witwatersrand studies present-day links between religion and rock art among the San people of the Kalahari Desert.[13] Though the San people's artworks are predominantly paintings, the beliefs behind them can perhaps be used as a basis for understanding other types of rock art, including petroglyphs. To quote from the RARI website:

Using knowledge of San beliefs, researchers have shown that the art played a fundamental part in the religious lives of its painters. The art captured things from the San's world behind the rock-face: the other world inhabited by spirit creatures, to which dancers could travel in animal form, and where people of ecstasy could draw power and bring it back for healing, rain-making and capturing the game.[14]

List of petroglyph sites[]

Africa[]

A petroglyph in Bidzar, Cameroon

Algeria[]

Cameroon[]

Central African Republic[]

  • Bambari, Lengo and Bangassou in the south; Bwale in the west
  • Toulou
  • Djebel Mela
  • Koumbala

Chad[]

Republic of the Congo[]

Egypt[]

  • Wadi Hammamat in Qift, many carvings and inscriptions dating from before the earliest Egyptian Dynasties to the modern era, including the only painted petroglyph known from the Eastern Desert and drawings of Egyptian reed boats dated to 4000 BCE
  • Inscription Rock in South Sinai, is a large rock with carvings and writings ranging from Nabatean to Latin, Ancient Greek and Crusader eras located a few miles from the Ain Hudra Oasis. A second rock sites approximately 1 km from the main rock near the Nabatean tombs of Nawamis with carvings of animals including Camels, Gazelles and others. The original archaeologists who investigated these in the 1800s have also left their names carved on this rock.
  • Giraffe petroglyphs found in the region of Gebel el-Silsila. The rock faces have been used for extensive quarrying of materials for temple building especially during the period specified as the New Kingdom. The Giraffe depictions are located near a stela of the king Amenhotep IV. The images are not dated, but they are probably dated from the Predynastic periods.

Ethiopia[]

  • Tiya

Gabon[]

  • Ogooue River Valley
  • Epona
  • Elarmekora
  • Kongo Boumba
  • Lindili
  • Kaya Kaya

Libya[]

  • Akakus
  • Jebel Uweinat

Morocco[]

  • The Draa River valley
Lion Plate at Twyfelfontein in Namibia (2014)

Namibia[]

  • Twyfelfontein

Niger[]

  • Life-size giraffe carvings on Dabous Rock, Aïr Mountains

South Africa[]

Zambia[]

Asia[]

Armenia[]

Petroglyphs at Ughtasar, Armenia

Azerbaijan[]

China[]

See also: Cliff inscriptions
  • Helankou in Yinchuan[17]
  • Hua'an Engravings
  • Kangjia shimenzi in Xinjiang[17]
  • Lianyungan Rock Engravings
  • Petroglyphs in Zhuhai
  • Yin Mountains in Inner Mongolia[17]

Georgia[]

Hong Kong[]

Eight sites in Hong Kong:

India[]

Petroglyphs in Ladakh, India
  • Bhimbetka rock shelters, Raisen District, Madhya Pradesh, India.
  • Kupgal petroglyphs on Dolerite Dyke, near Bellary, Karnataka, India.
  • Kudopi, Sindhudurg District, Maharashtra, India.
  • Hiwale, Sindhudurg District, Maharashtra, India.
  • Barsu, Ratnagiri District, Maharashtra, India.
  • Devihasol, Ratnagiri District, Maharashtra, India
  • Edakkal Caves, Wayanad District, Kerala, India.
  • Kollur, 35 km from Villupuram in Tamil Nadu. A large dolmen with four petroglyphs that portray men with trident and a wheel with spokes has been found. The discovery was made by . This is the second instance when a dolmen with petrographs has been found in Tamil Nadu, India.[18] In October 2018, petroglyphs were discovered in the Ratnagiri and Rajapur areas in the Konkan region of western Maharashtra. Those rock carvings which might date back to 10,000 BC, depict animals like hippopotamuses and rhinoceroses which aren't found in that region of India.[19] Some carving depicts, what appears to be Pisces constellation.[20]* Perumukkal, Tindivanam District, Tamil Nadu, India.
  • Kollur, Villupuram, Tamil Nadu.
  • Unakoti near Kailashahar in North Tripura District, Tripura, India.
  • Usgalimal rock engravings, Kushavati river banks, in Goa[21]
  • Ladakhi rock art in Ladakh, NW Indian Himalaya.[22]
  • Ratnagiri Maharashtra Petroglyphs, An eight ftlong petroglyph in Devache Gothane village in Rajapur district, Maharashtra.[23]
    “Images from later periods depict a goddess called Lajja Gauri who is similarly portrayed, squatting and with legs facing outward, though in those cases the rest of the body is also shown. We are exploring a link between the two,” Garge says.[23]

Iran[]

Further information: Rock art in Iran
IRAN ROCK ARTS
Map of petroglyphs and pictographs of Iran

During recent years a large number of rock carvings has been identified in different parts of Iran. The vast majority depict the ibex.[24][25] Rock drawings were found in December 2016 near Khomeyn, Iran, which may be the oldest drawings discovered, with one cluster possibly 40,000 years old. Accurate estimations were unavailable due to US sanctions.[26]

Petroglyphs are the most ancient works of art left by humankind that provide an opening to the past eras of life and help us to discover different aspects of prehistoric lives. Tools to create petroglyphs can be classified by the age and the historical era; they could be flint, thighbone of hunted quarries, or metallic tools. The oldest pictographs in Iran are seen in Yafteh cave in Lorestan that date back 40,000 and the oldest petroglyph discovered belongs to Timareh dating back to 40,800 years ago.

Iran provides demonstrations of script formation from pictogram, ideogram, linear (2300 BC) or proto Elamite, geometric old Elamite script, Pahlevi script, Arabic script (906 years ago), Kufi script, and Farsi script back to at least 250 years ago. More than 50000 petroglyphs have been discovered, extended over all Iran's states.[27]

Israel[]

  • Kibbutz Ginosar
  • Har Karkom
  • Negev

Japan[]

Jordan[]

  • Wadi Rum
  • Wadi Faynan

Kazakhstan[]

Hunting scene in Koksu petroglyphs
  • Koksu River, in Almaty Province
  • Chumysh River basin,
  • Tamgaly Tas on the Ili River
  • Tamgaly – a World Heritage Site nearly of Almaty

Laos[]

  • Plain of Jars

South Korea[]

Kyrgyzstan[]

  • Several sites in the Tien Shan mountains: Cholpon-Ata, the Talas valley, Saimaluu Tash, and on the rock outcrop called Suleiman's Throne in Osh in the Fergana valley

Macau[]

  • Coloane

Malaysia[]

  • Lumuyu Petroglyphs

Mongolia[]

  • , UNESCO World Heritage site, 2011[30][31]

Pakistan[]

Philippines[]

  • Angono Petroglyphs of Rizal, Philippines

Saudi Arabia[]

  • Petroglyphs at Wadi Qarn.

  • Petroglyphs at Mada'in Salih.

  • Petroglyphs of musical instruments.

  • Petroglyphs of animals, Tabuk.

  • Hieroglyphic inscriptions, Tabuk.

  • Islamic inscribtions, Qasim.

  • Thamudic inscribtions.

  • "Graffiti Rocks", about 110 km SW of Riyadh off the Mecca highway
  • Arwa, west of Riyadh
  • al Jawf, near al Jawf
  • Jubbah, Umm Samnan, north of Hail
  • , south of Hail
  • , south of Hail
  • , south of Hail
  • , north of Tabuk
  • , near Tabuk
  • , near al Ula
  • , north of Madina
  • & Ratt, north of Madina
  • Hanakiya, north of Madina
  • Shimli
  • , north of Najran
  • , north of Najran
  • Al-Magar, in Najd

Taiwan[]

  • The near Maolin District, Kaohsiung, were discovered between 1978 and 2002.

Thailand[]

  • Pha Taem National Park

Vietnam[]

  • Rock carving on Cheung Chau Island, Hong Kong. This 3000-year-old rock carving was reported by geologists in 1970

  • Petroglyphs at Cholpon-Ata in Kyrgyzstan

  • Tamgaly petroglyphs in Kazakhstan

  • Buddhist carvings at Ili River in Kazakhstan

  • Petroglyphs on a rock wall found in the Sierra Madre mountain range, Rizal, Philippines

  • Petroglyph found in Awashima shrine (Japan)

Europe[]

  • Carving "The Shoemaker", Brastad, Sweden

  • Petroglyph in Roque Bentayga, Gran Canaria (Canary Islands).

  • Petroglyph at Dalgarven Mill, Ayrshire, Scotland.

  • Bronze Age petroglyphs depicting weapons, Castriño de Conxo, Santiago de Compostela, Galicia.

  • Labyrinth, Meis, Galicia.

  • Cup-and-ring mark, Louro, Muros, Galicia.

  • Deer and cup-and-ring motifs, Tourón, Ponte Caldelas, Galicia.

  • Petroglyphs in Zalavruga, Belomorsk, Karelia, Russia

England[]

  • Boscawen-un, St Buryan
  • Cup and ring marked rocks in:

Finland[]

  • Hauensuoli, Hanko, Finland

France[]

  • The sorcerer, Vallée des Merveilles, France

  • The tribe master, Vallée des Merveilles, France

Ireland[]

Italy[]

  • Grosio - Rupe Magna

  • Grosio - Rupe Magna

  • Grosio - Rupe Magna

Northern Ireland[]

  • Knockmany

  • Leftmost of three central stones, Knockmany Chambered Tomb, Co. Tyrone, Northern Ireland

  • Central of three central stones, Knockmany Chambered Tomb, Co. Tyrone, Northern Ireland

  • A stone on the right of the passage, Knockmany Chambered Tomb, Co. Tyrone, Northern Ireland

  • Sess Kilgreen Chambered Tomb, Co. Tyrone, Northern Ireland

  • Sess Kilgreen Chambered Tomb, Co. Tyrone, Northern Ireland

Norway[]

See also: List of rock carvings in Norway

Portugal[]

  • Carvings of various zoomorphic creatures, including in particular, a horse

  • Paleolithic rock engravings breaking the natural rock formation

  • Various zoomorphic creatures, including in particular, a Bull

Scotland[]

Spain[]

Millenarian rock carvings, Laxe dos carballos at Campo Lameiro, this detail depicts a deer hit by several spears
  • Petroglyphs from Galicia[33]

Russia[]

Petroglyph Park near Petrozavodsk–Lake Onega, Russia
Mammoth on the basalt stone in Sikachi-Alyan, Russia
White Sea petroglyphs, Republic of Karelia, Russia

Sweden[]

Turkey[]

  • Kagizman, Kars
  • Cunni Cave, Erzurum
  • Esatli, Ordu
  • Gevaruk Valley, Hakkâri
  • Hakkari Trisin, Hakkâri
  • Latmos / Beşparmak
  • Güdül, Ankara

Ukraine[]

  • Kamyana Mohyla, Zaporizhzhia Oblast
  • Stone stelae of the Ukraine

Wales[]

  • , Pembrokeshire

Central and South America and the Caribbean[]

Argentina[]

Aruba[]

Brazil[]

The oldest reliably dated rock art in the Americas is known as the "Horny Little Man." It is petroglyph depicting a stick figure with an oversized phallus and carved in Lapa do Santo, a cave in central-eastern Brazil and dates from 12,000 to 9,000 years ago.[35]

  • Serra da Capivara National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Piauí
  • Vale do Catimbau National Park, Pernambuco
  • Ingá Stone, Paraíba
  • Costao do Santinho, Santa Catarina
  • Lagoa Santa (Holy Lake), Minas Gerais
  • Ivolandia, Goiás

  • Capivara National Park, Piauí, Brazil

  • Ivolandia, Goiás, Brazil

  • Costao do Santinho, SC, Brazil

Chile[]

  • Numerous rocks boasting thousand-year-old carvings.[36]

  • Modern science and the spectre of ancient man coexist in this thought-provoking image of a petroglyph.[37]

  • Llamas at La Silla[38]

  • Petroglyphs at Orongo, Rapa Nui (Easter Island). A Makemake at the base and two birdmen higher up

Colombia[]

  • El Abra, Cundinamarca
  • Chiribiquete Natural National Park

  • El Abra archaeological site, Cundinamarca

  • Petroglyph in the Chiribiquete Natural National Park. (Possible equine)

  • Petroglyph in the Chiribiquete Natural National Park. Aboriginal

  • Petroglyph in the Chiribiquete Natural National Park. (Possible mammal).

  • Petroglyphs in the Chiribiquete Natural National Park.

Costa Rica[]

  • Rincon de la Vieja, Guanacaste

Dominican Republic[]

Grenada[]

Nicaragua[]

  • El Ceibo Petroglyphs,[39] Ometepe, Rivas
  • Ometepe Petroglyphs,[39] Ometepe, Rivas

Paraguay[]

Fertility symbols, called "Ita Letra" by the local Panambi'y people, in a natural shelter in Amambay, Paraguay
  • Amambay Department

Peru[]

Saint Kitts and Nevis[]

  • Carib Petroglyphs, Wingfield Manor Estate, Saint Kitts

Suriname[]

Trinidad and Tobago[]

  • Caurita
    The only known Amerindian petroglyph in Trinidad

Venezuela[]

North America[]

Canada[]

Mexico[]

Near Parras, Coahuila

United States[]

Petroglyph on western coast of Hawaii
Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park
A color picture of some petroglyphs on a tan sandstone cliff face
Modern Hopi have interpreted the petroglyphs at Mesa Verde National Park's Petroglyph Point as depictions of the Eagle, Mountain Sheep, Parrot, Horned Toad, and Mountain Lion clans, and the Ancestral Puebloans who inhabited the mesa
  • Arches National Park, Utah
  • Bandelier National Monument, New Mexico
  • Barnesville Petroglyph, Ohio
  • Bloomington Petroglyph Park, Utah
  • Capitol Reef National Park, Utah
  • Caguana Indian Park, Utuado, Puerto Rico
  • Columbia Hills State Park, Washington[43]
  • Corn Springs, Colorado Desert, California
  • Coso Rock Art District, Coso Range, northern Mojave Desert, California[44]
  • Death Valley National Park, California
  • Dinosaur National Monument, Colorado and Utah
  • Dighton Rock, Massachusetts
  • Dominguez Canyon Wilderness, Colorado
  • Fremont Indian State Park Utah
  • Ginkgo Petrified Forest State Park Washington[45]
  • Grand Traverse Bay Michigan
  • Great Basin National Park Nevada
  • Grimes Point, Nevada[46]
  • Independence Slab, Ohio
  • Inscription Rock (Kelleys Island, Ohio), Ohio
  • Jeffers Petroglyphs, Minnesota
  • Judaculla Rock, North Carolina
  • Kanopolis State Park, Kansas
  • (Indians Cave), Arecibo, Puerto Rico
  • La Piedra Escrita (The Written Rock), Jayuya, Puerto Rico
  • Lava Beds National Monument, Tule Lake, California
  • Legend Rock Petroglyph Site, Thermopolis, Wyoming
  • Lemonweir Glyphs, Wisconsin
  • Leo Petroglyph, Leo, Ohio[47]
  • Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado
  • Newspaper Rock State Historic Monument, Utah
  • Olympic National Park, Washington
  • Paintlick Mountain, Tazewell, Virginia[48]
  • Petit Jean State Park, Arkansas
  • Petrified Forest National Park Arizona
  • Petroglyph National Monument, New Mexico[49]
  • Picture Canyon, Flagstaff, Arizona
  • Puye Cliff Dwellings, New Mexico
  • Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area, Nevada
  • Rochester Rock Art Panel, Utah
  • Ring Mountain, Marin County, California
  • Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands
  • Sanilac Petroglyphs Historic State Park, Sanilac County, Michigan
  • Sedona, Arizona
  • Seminole Canyon, Texas
  • Sloan Canyon National Conservation Area, Nevada
  • South Mountain Park, Arizona
  • The Cove Palisades State Park, Oregon
  • Three Rivers Petroglyphs, New Mexico[50]
  • Tibes Indian Park, Ponce, Puerto Rico
  • Valley of Fire State Park, Nevada
  • Washington State Park, Washington County, Missouri
  • West Virginia glyphs
  • White Mountain (Wyoming), Rock Springs, Wyoming
  • White Tank Mountain Regional Park, Waddell, Arizona
  • Winnemucca Lake, Nevada
  • Writing Rock State Historical Site, North Dakota
  • , Puerto Rico
  • Track Rock, Union County Georgia
  • Originally discovered, locates and documented near Cumming, Georgia in Forsyth County but has been relocated to the campus of the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia

  • Petroglyphs on a Bishop Tuff tableland, eastern California

  • Southern Utah

  • Southern Utah

  • Utah

  • Arches National Park

  • Animal print carvings outside of Barnesville, Ohio

  • Arizona

  • Picacho Mountain Petroglyphs

  • Columbia River Gorge, Washington

  • Upside-down man in Western Colorado

  • Rochester Rock Art Panel in the San Rafael Swell in Utah

  • Web-like petroglyph on the White Tank Mountain Regional Park Waterfall Trail, Arizona

  • Chipping petroglyph on the White Tank Mountain Regional Park Waterfall Trail, Arizona

  • Sample of petroglyphs at Painted Rock near Gila Bend, Arizona off Interstate 8.

  • Puye Cliff Dwellings, New Mexico

  • Detail of a carved archer-like figure, Sanilac Petroglyphs Historic State Park, Sanilac County, Michigan

  • Sky Rock Petroglyphs, Bishop, California.

  • Sky Rock Petroglyphs, Bishop, California.

Oceania[]

Australia[]

  • Arnhem Land / Kakadu National Park, Northern Australia
  • Gosford Glyphs in Central Coast, NSW (widely regarded as archaeological forgery)
  • Murujuga, Western Australia – world heritage assessed
  • Sydney Rock Engravings, New South Wales

  • Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, New South Wales

  • Part of a 20-metre-long petroglyph at Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, New South Wales

  • Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, New South Wales

  • Mutawintji National Park, New South Wales

  • Burrup Peninsula, Western Australia

See also[]

References[]

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  2. ^ Harmanşah (2014), 5–6; Canepa, 53.
  3. ^ See: Rawson and Sickman & Soper
  4. ^ Wieschhoff, Heinrich Albert (1945). Africa. University of Pennsylvania Press. Most noteworthy among the relics of Africa's early periods are the rock-paintings (petrographs) and rock-engravings (petroglyphs) which have been discovered in many parts of the continent
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  9. ^ Morris, Ronald (1979) The Prehistoric Rock Art of Galloway and The Isle of Man, Blandford Press, ISBN 978-0-7137-0974-2.
  10. ^ [See: D. Lewis-Williams, A Cosmos in Stone: Interpreting Religion and Society through Rock Art (Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 2002).]
  11. ^ Peratt, A.L. (2003). "Characteristics for the occurrence of a high-current, Z-pinch aurora as recorded in antiquity". IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science. 31 (6): 1192. Bibcode:2003ITPS...31.1192P. doi:10.1109/TPS.2003.820956. S2CID 24640096.
  12. ^ Peratt, Anthony L.; McGovern, John; Qoyawayma, Alfred H.; Van Der Sluijs, Marinus Anthony; Peratt, Mathias G. (2007). "Characteristics for the Occurrence of a High-Current Z-Pinch Aurora as Recorded in Antiquity Part II: Directionality and Source". IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science. 35 (4): 778. Bibcode:2007ITPS...35..778P. doi:10.1109/TPS.2007.902630. S2CID 124068782.
  13. ^ Rockart.wits.ac.za Archived 2017-07-30 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2013-02-12.
  14. ^ "Rock Art Research Institute (RARI)". University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
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  16. ^ Khechoyan, Anna. "The Rock Art of the Mt. Aragats System | Anna Khechoyan". Xxii International Valcamonica Symposium Rock Art in the Frame of the Cultural Heritage of Humankind l'Arte Rupestre Nel Quadro del Patrimonio Culturale dell'umanità,Centro Congressi - Darfo Boario Terme (Bs) Italy 18Th - 24Th May. Academia.edu. Retrieved 2013-08-18.
  17. ^ Jump up to: a b c d O'Sullivan, Rebecca (2018). "East Asia: Rock Art". Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology (2 ed.). Springer. pp. 1–11. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-51726-1_3131-1. ISBN 978-3-319-51726-1.
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  • Harmanşah, Ömür (ed) (2014), Of Rocks and Water: An Archaeology of Place, 2014, Oxbow Books, ISBN 1-78297-674-4, 9781782976745
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Further reading[]

  • Beckensall, Stan and Laurie, Tim, Prehistoric Rock Art of County Durham, Swaledale and Wensleydale, County Durham Books, 1998 ISBN 1-897585-45-4
  • Beckensall, Stan, Prehistoric Rock Art in Northumberland, Tempus Publishing, 2001 ISBN 0-7524-1945-5

External links[]

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