Racism in North America

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This article describes the state of race relations and racism in North America. Racism manifests itself in different ways and severities throughout North America depending on the country. Colonial processes shaped the continent culturally, demographically, religiously, economically, and linguistically. Racism was part of this process and is exemplified throughout North America today, but varies regionally.

Canada[]

In a 2013 survey of 80 countries by the World Values Survey, Canada was ranked among the most racially tolerant societies in the world.^[1] In 2015, the Social Progress Index ranked Canada #2 for overall tolerance and inclusion.^[2][3]

In general, Canadians consider themselves to be mostly free of racial prejudice, perceiving the country as a more inclusive society, a notion that has come under criticism.^[4][5] For instance, the Aboriginal population in Canada has been treated badly and sustained major hardships.^[2][6] These perceptions of inclusion and "colour-blindness" have been challenged in recent years, with scholars such as Constance Backhouse stating that white supremacy is still prevalent in the country's legal system, with blatant racism created and enforced through the law.^[7] According to one commentator, Canadian "racism contributes to a self-perpetuating cycle of criminalization and imprisonment".^[8] In addition, throughout Canada's history there have been laws and regulations that have negatively affected a wide variety of races, religions, and groups of persons.

Canadian law uses the term "visible minority" to refer to people of colour (but not aboriginal Canadians), introduced by the Employment Equity Act of 1995.^[9] However, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination stated this term may be considered objectionable by certain minorities and recommended an evaluation of this term. In response, the Canadian government made efforts to evaluate how this term is used in Canadian society through commissioning of scholars and open workshops.^[10]

In 2020, Canadian university students attracted media attention by sharing on Instagram their experiences of racism on campuses.^[11]

Mexico[]

Racism in Mexico has a long history.^[12] Historically, Mexicans that were more genetically Spanish, and thus lighter skin tones, had absolute control over dark-skinned Indigenous people. This is evidenced in the Spanish colonial Casta system. Generally, White Mexicans have made up the majority of Mexico's upper class and as such, many White Mexicans feel a sense of superiority over the Amerindian population who tend to be predominantly of low income. In Mexico, people who are darker-skinned or of indigenous descent make up the majority of the working classes, while lighter-skinned Mexicans of Spanish descent typically make up the majority of the upper class. However, there are notable exceptions as most of the poor in the rural north of Mexico are White, whilst in Southern Mexico – particularly in the states of Yucatán and Chiapas – Amerindians and Mestizos make up a large part of the upper class.^[13]

Trinidad and Tobago[]

The island nation of Trinidad and Tobago is a place of tension between Afro-Caribbeans and Indo-Caribbeans.^[14] Around 39% of Trinidadians are of African descent, 40% are of Indian descent and a small population is of European descent. Africans usually live in urban areas, notably the East-West corridor, while Indians usually live in the rural areas surrounding the sugar cane plantations.

United States[]

Racism in the United States has been a major issue ever since the era of colonialism and slavery. Legally sanctioned racism imposed a heavy burden on Native Americans, African Americans, Latino Americans, Americans from lesser developed parts of Europe, and Asian Americans. European Americans were privileged by law in matters of literacy, immigration, voting rights, citizenship, land acquisition, and criminal procedure over periods of time which extended from the 17th century to the 1960s. However, numerous European ethnic groups, including Jews, Irish, Southern European and Eastern European Americans, as well as immigrants from elsewhere, suffered xenophobic exclusion and other forms of racism in American society.

Major racially structured institutions included slavery, Indian Wars, Native American reservations, segregation, residential schools (for Native Americans), and internment camps (for Japanese-Americans). Formal racial discrimination was largely banned in the mid-20th century and came to be perceived as socially unacceptable and/or morally repugnant as well, yet racial politics remain a major phenomenon. Historical racism continues to be reflected in socio-economic inequality. Racial stratification continues to occur in employment, housing, education, lending, and government.

As in most countries, many people in the U.S. continue to have some prejudices against other races. In the view of a network of scores of US civil rights and human rights organizations, "Discrimination permeates all aspects of life in the United States, and extends to all communities of color." Discrimination against African Americans and Latin Americans is widely acknowledged. Members of every major American ethnic and religious minority have perceived discrimination in their dealings with other minority racial and religious groups.

Legal scholar Charles Lawrence, speaking about the American political elite said their "cultural belief system has influenced all of us; we are all racists".^[15] Philosopher Cornel West has stated that "racism is an integral element within the very fabric of American culture and society. It is embedded in the country's first collective definition, enunciated in its subsequent laws, and imbued in its dominant way of life."^[16]

Since Puerto Rico is a territory rather than state, the island is only entitled to certain "fundamental" constitutional protections, which is a source to their differential treatment.^[17] Holding the status as an incorporated territory, they are limited to certain rights, unable to vote and limited from certain federal entitlements and welfare programs under the 14th Amendment.^[17] Furthermore they hold zero representation under all forms of government, which proposes the application of heightened judicial view under the equal protection doctrine.^[17] The Supreme Court holds that Congress may treat Puerto Rico unequally as long as on a rational basis for actions.^[17] Federal courts have relied on this upholding and Puerto Rico's unincorporated territorial status and the resulting systematic inequality to deny plaintiff's equal protection lawsuits.^[17]

See also[]

• Racism in South America

References[]

Works cited[]