Timeline of the far future

Artist's concept of the Earth several billion years from now, when the Sun is a red giant.

While the future cannot be predicted with certainty, present understanding in various scientific fields allows for the prediction of some far-future events, if only in the broadest outline.^[1]^[2] These fields include astrophysics, which has revealed how planets and stars form, interact, and die; particle physics, which has revealed how matter behaves at the smallest scales; evolutionary biology, which predicts how life will evolve over time; and plate tectonics, which shows how continents shift over millennia.

The timelines displayed here cover events from the beginning of the 4th millennium (which begins in 3001 CE) to the furthest reaches of future time. A number of alternative future events are listed to account for questions still unresolved, such as whether humans will become extinct, whether protons decay, and whether the Earth survives when the Sun expands to become a red giant.

Key[]

	Astronomy and astrophysics
	Geology and planetary science
	Biology
	Particle physics
	Mathematics
	Technology and culture

Earth, the Solar System and the universe[]

All projections of the future of Earth, the Solar System, and the universe must account for the second law of thermodynamics, which states that entropy, or a loss of the energy available to do work, must rise over time.^[3] Stars will eventually exhaust their supply of hydrogen fuel and burn out. Close encounters between astronomical objects gravitationally fling planets from their star systems, and star systems from galaxies.^[4]

Physicists expect that matter itself will eventually come under the influence of radioactive decay, as even the most stable materials break apart into subatomic particles.^[5] Current data suggest that the universe has a flat geometry (or very close to flat), and thus will not collapse in on itself after a finite time,^[6] and the infinite future allows for the occurrence of a number of massively improbable events, such as the formation of Boltzmann brains.^[7]

	Years from now	Event
	1,000	The average length of a solar day is likely to exceed 86,400+1⁄30 SI seconds due to lunar tides decelerating the Earth's rotation, making the current UTC standard of inserting a leap second only at the end of a UTC month insufficient to keep UTC within one second of UT1 at all times. To compensate, either leap seconds will have to be added at multiple times during the month or multiple leap seconds will have to be added at the end of some or all months.^[8]
	10,000	If a failure of the Wilkes Subglacial Basin "ice plug" in the next few centuries were to endanger the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, it would take up to this long to melt completely. Sea levels would rise 3 to 4 metres.^[9] One of the potential long-term effects of global warming, this is separate from the shorter-term threat of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet.
	10,000^{[note 1]}	The red supergiant star Antares will likely have exploded in a supernova. The explosion should be easily visible on Earth in daylight.^[10]
	13,000	By this point, halfway through the precessional cycle, Earth's axial tilt will be reversed, causing summer and winter to occur on opposite sides of Earth's orbit. This means that the seasons in the Northern Hemisphere, which experiences more pronounced seasonal variation due to a higher percentage of land, will be even more extreme, as it will be facing towards the Sun at Earth's perihelion and away from the Sun at aphelion.^[11]
	15,000	According to the Sahara pump theory, the precession of Earth's poles will move the North African Monsoon far enough north to convert the Sahara back into having a tropical climate, as it had 5,000–10,000 years ago.^[12]^[13]
	17,000^{[note 1]}	Best-guess recurrence rate for a "civilization-threatening" supervolcanic eruption large enough to spew 1,000 gigatonnes of pyroclastic material.^[14]^[15]
	25,000	The northern Martian polar ice cap could recede as Mars reaches a warming peak of the northern hemisphere during the c. 50,000-year perihelion precession aspect of its Milankovitch cycle.^[16]^[17]
	36,000	The small red dwarf Ross 248 will pass within 3.024 light-years of Earth, becoming the closest star to the Sun.^[18] It will recede after about 8,000 years, making first Alpha Centauri (again) and then Gliese 445 the nearest stars^[18] (see timeline).
	50,000	According to Berger and Loutre (2002), the current interglacial period will end,^[19] sending the Earth back into a glacial period of the current ice age, regardless of the effects of anthropogenic global warming. According to more recent studies however (2016), the effects of anthropogenic global warming may delay this otherwise expected glacial period by another 50,000 years, effectively skipping it.^[20] The Niagara Falls will have eroded away the remaining 32 km to Lake Erie, and will cease to exist.^[21] The many glacial lakes of the Canadian Shield will have been erased by post-glacial rebound and erosion.^[22]
	50,000	The length of the day used for astronomical timekeeping reaches about 86,401 SI seconds due to lunar tides decelerating the Earth's rotation. Under the present-day timekeeping system, either a leap second would need to be added to the clock every single day, or else by then, in order to compensate, the length of the day would have had to have been officially lengthened by one SI second.^[8]
	100,000	The proper motion of stars across the celestial sphere, which results from their movement through the Milky Way, renders many of the constellations unrecognizable.^[23]
	100,000^{[note 1]}	The hypergiant star VY Canis Majoris will likely have exploded in a supernova.^[24]
	100,000	Native North American earthworms, such as Megascolecidae, will have naturally spread north through the United States Upper Midwest to the Canada–US border, recovering from the Laurentide Ice Sheet glaciation (38°N to 49°N), assuming a migration rate of 10 metres per year.^[25] (However, humans have already introduced non-native invasive earthworms of North America on a much shorter timescale, causing a shock to the regional ecosystem.)
	> 100,000	As one of the long-term effects of global warming, 10% of anthropogenic carbon dioxide will still remain in a stabilized atmosphere.^[26]
	250,000	Lōʻihi, the youngest volcano in the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, will rise above the surface of the ocean and become a new volcanic island.^[27]
	c. 300,000^{[note 1]}	At some point in the next few hundred thousand years, the Wolf–Rayet star WR 104 may explode in a supernova. There is a small chance WR 104 is spinning fast enough to produce a gamma-ray burst, and an even smaller chance that such a GRB could pose a threat to life on Earth.^[28]^[29]
	500,000^{[note 1]}	Earth will likely have been hit by an asteroid of roughly 1 km in diameter, assuming that it cannot be averted.^[30]
	500,000	The rugged terrain of Badlands National Park in South Dakota will have eroded away completely.^[31]
	1 million	Meteor Crater, a large impact crater in Arizona considered the "freshest" of its kind, will have eroded away.^[32]
	1 million^{[note 1]}	Highest estimated time until the red supergiant star Betelgeuse explodes in a supernova. For at least a few months, the supernova will be visible on Earth in daylight. Studies suggest this supernova will occur within a million years, and perhaps even as little as the next 100,000 years.^[33]^[34]
	1 million^{[note 1]}	Desdemona and Cressida, moons of Uranus, will likely have collided.^[35]
	1.28 ± 0.05 million	The star Gliese 710 will pass as close as 0.0676 parsecs—0.221 light-years (14,000 astronomical units)^[36] to the Sun before moving away. This will gravitationally perturb members of the Oort cloud, a halo of icy bodies orbiting at the edge of the Solar System, thereafter raising the likelihood of a cometary impact in the inner Solar System.^[37]
	2 million	Estimated time for the recovery of coral reef ecosystems from human-caused ocean acidification; the recovery of marine ecosystems after the acidification event that occurred about 65 million years ago took a similar length of time.^[38]
	2 million+	The Grand Canyon will erode further, deepening slightly, but principally widening into a broad valley surrounding the Colorado River.^[39]
	2.7 million	Average orbital half-life of current centaurs, that are unstable because of gravitational interaction of the several outer planets.^[40] See predictions for notable centaurs.
	3 million	Due to the gradual slowing down of Earth's rotation, a day on Earth will be one minute longer than it is today.^[41]
	10 million	The widening East African Rift valley is flooded by the Red Sea, causing a new ocean basin to divide the continent of Africa^[42] and the African Plate into the newly formed Nubian Plate and the Somali Plate. The Indian Plate will advance into Tibet by 180 km (110 mi). Nepal's territory, whose boundaries are defined by the Himalayan peaks and on the plains of India, will cease to exist.^[43]
	10 million	Estimated time for full recovery of biodiversity after a potential Holocene extinction, if it were on the scale of the five previous major extinction events.^[44] Even without a mass extinction, by this time most current species will have disappeared through the background extinction rate, with many clades gradually evolving into new forms.^[45]^[46]
	10 million – 1 billion^{[note 1]}	Cupid and Belinda, moons of Uranus, will likely have collided.^[35]
	50 million	Maximum estimated time before the moon Phobos collides with Mars.^[47]
	50 million	According to Christopher R. Scotese, the movement of the San Andreas Fault will cause the Gulf of California to flood into the Central Valley. This will form a new inland sea on the West Coast of North America, causing the current locations of Los Angeles and San Francisco to merge.^[48] The Californian coast will begin to be subducted into the Aleutian Trench.^[49] Africa's collision with Eurasia will close the Mediterranean Basin and create a mountain range similar to the Himalayas.^[50] The Appalachian Mountains peaks will largely erode away,^[51] weathering at 5.7 Bubnoff units, although topography will actually rise as regional valleys deepen at twice this rate.^[52]
	50–60 million	The Canadian Rockies will erode away to a plain, assuming a rate of 60 Bubnoff units.^[53] The Southern Rockies in the United States are eroding at a somewhat slower rate.^[54]
	50–400 million	Estimated time for Earth to naturally replenish its fossil fuel reserves.^[55]
	80 million	The Big Island will have become the last of the current Hawaiian Islands to sink beneath the surface of the ocean, while a more recently formed chain of "new Hawaiian Islands" will then have emerged in their place.^[56]
	100 million^{[note 1]}	Earth will likely have been hit by an asteroid comparable in size to the one that triggered the K–Pg extinction 66 million years ago, assuming this cannot be averted.^[57]
	100 million	According to the Pangaea Proxima Model created by Christopher R. Scotese, a new subduction zone will open in the Atlantic Ocean and the Americas will begin to converge back toward Africa.^[48]
	100 million	Upper estimate for lifespan of the rings of Saturn in their current state.^[58]
	110 million	The Sun's luminosity has increased by 1%.^[59]
	180 million	Due to the gradual slowing down of Earth's rotation, a day on Earth will be one hour longer than it is today.^[60]
	230 million	Prediction of the orbits of the planets is impossible over greater time spans than this, due to the limitations of Lyapunov time.^[61]
	240 million	From its present position, the Solar System completes one full orbit of the Galactic Center.^[62]
	250 million	According to Christopher R. Scotese, due to the northward movement of the West Coast of North America, the coast of California will collide with Alaska.^[48]
	250–350 million	All the continents on Earth may fuse into a supercontinent. Three potential arrangements of this configuration have been dubbed Amasia, Novopangaea, and Pangaea Ultima.^[48]^[63] This will likely result in a glacial period, lowering sea levels and increasing oxygen levels, further lowering global temperatures.^[64]^[65]
	> 250 million	Rapid biological evolution may occur due to the formation of a supercontinent causing lower temperatures and higher oxygen levels.^[65] Increased competition between species due to the formation of a supercontinent, increased volcanic activity and less hospitable conditions due to global warming from a brighter Sun could result in a mass extinction event from which plant and animal life may not fully recover.^[66]
	300 million	Due to a shift in the equatorial Hadley cells to roughly 40° north and south, the amount of arid land will increase by 25%.^[66]
	300–600 million	Estimated time for Venus's mantle temperature to reach its maximum. Then, over a period of about 100 million years, major subduction occurs and the crust is recycled.^[67]
	350 million	According to the extroversion model first developed by Paul F. Hoffman, subduction ceases in the Pacific Ocean Basin.^[68]^[69]^[63]
	400–500 million	The supercontinent (Pangaea Ultima, Novopangaea, or Amasia) will likely have rifted apart.^[63] This will likely result in higher global temperatures, similar to the Cretaceous period.^[65]
	500 million^{[note 1]}	Estimated time until a gamma-ray burst, or massive, hyperenergetic supernova, occurs within 6,500 light-years of Earth; close enough for its rays to affect Earth's ozone layer and potentially trigger a mass extinction, assuming the hypothesis is correct that a previous such explosion triggered the Ordovician–Silurian extinction event. However, the supernova would have to be precisely oriented relative to Earth to have any such effect.^[70]
	600 million	Tidal acceleration moves the Moon far enough from Earth that total solar eclipses are no longer possible.^[71]
	500–600 million	The Sun's increasing luminosity begins to disrupt the carbonate–silicate cycle; higher luminosity increases weathering of surface rocks, which traps carbon dioxide in the ground as carbonate. As water evaporates from the Earth's surface, rocks harden, causing plate tectonics to slow and eventually stop once the oceans evaporate completely. With less volcanism to recycle carbon into the Earth's atmosphere, carbon dioxide levels begin to fall.^[72] By this time, carbon dioxide levels will fall to the point at which C₃ photosynthesis is no longer possible. All plants that utilize C₃ photosynthesis (≈99 percent of present-day species) will die.^[73] The extinction of C₃ plant life is likely to be a long-term decline rather than a sharp drop. It is likely that plant groups will die one by one well before the critical carbon dioxide level is reached. The first plants to disappear will be C₃ herbaceous plants, followed by deciduous forests, evergreen broad-leaf forests and finally evergreen conifers.^[66]
	500–800 million	As Earth begins to rapidly warm and carbon dioxide levels fall, plants—and, by extension, animals—could survive longer by evolving other strategies such as requiring less carbon dioxide for photosynthetic processes, becoming carnivorous, adapting to desiccation, or associating with fungi. These adaptations are likely to appear near the beginning of the moist greenhouse.^[66] The death of most plant life will result in less oxygen in the atmosphere, allowing for more DNA-damaging ultraviolet radiation to reach the surface. The rising temperatures will increase chemical reactions in the atmosphere, further lowering oxygen levels. Flying animals would be better off because of their ability to travel large distances looking for cooler temperatures.^[74] Many animals may be driven to the poles or possibly underground. These creatures would become active during the polar night and aestivate during the polar day due to the intense heat and radiation. Much of the land would become a barren desert, and plants and animals would primarily be found in the oceans.^[74] As pointed out by Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee in their book The Life and Death of Planet Earth, according to NASA Ames scientist Kevin Zahnle, this is the earliest time for plate tectonics to eventually stop, due to the gradual cooling of the Earth's core, which could potentially turn the Earth back into a waterworld.
	800–900 million	Carbon dioxide levels will fall to the point at which C₄ photosynthesis is no longer possible.^[73] Without plant life to recycle oxygen in the atmosphere, free oxygen and the ozone layer will disappear from the atmosphere allowing for intense levels of deadly UV light to reach the surface. In the book The Life and Death of Planet Earth, authors Peter D. Ward and Donald Brownlee state that some animal life may be able to survive in the oceans. Eventually, however, all multicellular life will die out.^[75] At most, animal life could survive about 100 million years after plant life dies out, with the last animals being animals that do not depend on living plants such as termites or those near hydrothermal vents such as worms of the genus Riftia.^[66] The only life left on the Earth after this will be single-celled organisms.
	1 billion^{[note 2]}	27% of the ocean's mass will have been subducted into the mantle. If this were to continue uninterrupted, it would reach an equilibrium where 65% of present-day surface water would be subducted.^[76]
	1.1 billion	The Sun's luminosity will have risen by 10%, causing Earth's surface temperatures to reach an average of around 320 K (47 °C; 116 °F). The atmosphere will become a "moist greenhouse", resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans.^[72]^[77] This would cause plate tectonics to stop completely, if not already stopped before this time.^[78] Pockets of water may still be present at the poles, allowing abodes for simple life.^[79]^[80]
	1.2 billion	High estimate until all plant life dies out, assuming some form of photosynthesis is possible despite extremely low carbon dioxide levels. If this is possible, rising temperatures will make any animal life unsustainable from this point on.^[81]^[82]^[83]
	1.3 billion	Eukaryotic life dies out on Earth due to carbon dioxide starvation. Only prokaryotes remain.^[75]
	1.5–1.6 billion	The Sun's rising luminosity causes its circumstellar habitable zone to move outwards; as carbon dioxide rises in Mars's atmosphere, its surface temperature rises to levels akin to Earth during the ice age.^[75]^[84]
	1.5-4.5 billion	The Moon's increasing distance from the Earth lessens its stabilising effect on the Earth's axial tilt. As a consequence, Earth's true polar wander becomes chaotic and extreme, leading to dramatic shifts in the planet's climate due to the changing axial tilt.^[85]
	1.6 billion	Lower estimate until all prokaryotic life will go extinct.^[75]
	< 2 billion	First close passage of the Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way.^[86]
	2 billion	High estimate until the Earth's oceans evaporate if the atmospheric pressure were to decrease via the nitrogen cycle.^[87]
	2.3 billion	The Earth's outer core freezes if the inner core continues to grow at its current rate of 1 mm (0.039 in) per year.^[88]^[89] Without its liquid outer core, the Earth's magnetic field shuts down,^[90] and charged particles emanating from the Sun gradually deplete the atmosphere.^[91]
	2.55 billion	The Sun will have reached a maximum surface temperature of 5,820 K (5,550 °C; 10,020 °F). From then on, it will become gradually cooler while its luminosity will continue to increase.^[77]
	2.8 billion	Earth's surface temperature will reach around 420 K (147 °C; 296 °F), even at the poles.^[72]^[92]
	2.8 billion	All life, which by now had been reduced to unicellular colonies in isolated, scattered microenvironments such as high-altitude lakes or caves, goes extinct.^[72]^[92]
	c. 3 billion^{[note 1]}	There is a roughly 1-in-100,000 chance that the Earth might be ejected into interstellar space by a stellar encounter before this point, and a 1-in-3-million chance that it will then be captured by another star. Were this to happen, life, assuming it survived the interstellar journey, could potentially continue for far longer.^[93]
	3.3 billion	1% chance that Jupiter's gravity may make Mercury's orbit so eccentric as to collide with Venus, sending the inner Solar System into chaos. Possible scenarios include Mercury colliding with the Sun, being ejected from the Solar System, or colliding with Earth.^[94]
	3.5–4.5 billion	All water currently present in oceans (if not lost earlier) evaporates. The greenhouse effect caused by the massive, water-rich atmosphere, combined with the Sun's luminosity reaching roughly 35–40% above its present value, will result in Earth's surface temperature rising to 1,400 K (1,130 °C; 2,060 °F)—hot enough to melt some surface rock.^[78]^[87]^[95]^[96]
	3.6 billion	Neptune's moon Triton falls through the planet's Roche limit, potentially disintegrating into a planetary ring system similar to Saturn's.^[97]
	4.5 billion	Mars reaches the same solar flux the Earth did when it first formed, 4.5 billion years ago from today.^[84]
	< 5 billion	Andromeda Galaxy will have fully merged with the Milky Way, forming a galaxy dubbed "Milkomeda".^[86] There is also a small chance of the Solar System being ejected.^[98]^[99] The planets of the Solar System will almost certainly not be disturbed by these events.^[100]^[101]^[102]
	5.4 billion	With the hydrogen supply exhausted at its core, the Sun leaves the main sequence and begins to evolve into a red giant.^[103]
	6.5 billion	Mars reaches the same solar radiation flux as Earth today, after which it will suffer a similar fate to the Earth as described above.^[84]
	6.6 billion	The Sun will experience a helium flash, resulting in its core becoming as bright as the combined luminosity of all the stars in the Milky Way galaxy.^[104]
	7.5 billion	Earth and Mars may become tidally locked with the expanding subgiant Sun.^[84]
	7.59 billion	The Earth and Moon are very likely destroyed by falling into the Sun, just before the Sun reaches the tip of its red giant phase and its maximum radius of 256 times the present-day value.^[103]^{[note 3]} Before the final collision, the Moon possibly spirals below Earth's Roche limit, breaking into a ring of debris, most of which falls to the Earth's surface.^[105] During this era, Saturn's moon Titan may reach surface temperatures necessary to support life.^[106]
	7.9 billion	The Sun reaches the tip of the red-giant branch of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, achieving its maximum radius of 256 times the present-day value.^[107] In the process, Mercury, Venus, and very likely Earth are destroyed.^[103]
	8 billion	The Sun becomes a carbon–oxygen white dwarf with about 54.05% its present mass.^[103]^[108]^[109]^[110] At this point, if somehow the Earth survives, temperatures on the surface of the planet, as well as other remaining planets in the Solar System, will begin dropping rapidly, due to the white dwarf Sun emitting much less energy than it does today.
	22 billion	The end of the Universe in the Big Rip scenario, assuming a model of dark energy with `w` = −1.5.^[111]^[112] If the density of dark energy is less than −1, then the Universe's expansion would continue to accelerate and the Observable Universe would continue to get smaller. Around 200 million years before the Big Rip, galaxy clusters like the Local Group or the Sculptor Group would be destroyed. Sixty million years before the Big Rip, all galaxies will begin to lose stars around their edges and will completely disintegrate in another 40 million years. Three months before the Big Rip, all star systems will become gravitationally unbound, and planets will fly off into the rapidly expanding universe. Thirty minutes before the Big Rip, planets, stars, asteroids and even extreme objects like neutron stars and black holes will evaporate into atoms. One hundred zeptoseconds (10⁻¹⁹ seconds) before the Big Rip, atoms would break apart. Ultimately, once rip reaches the Planck scale, cosmic strings would be disintegrated as well as the fabric of spacetime itself. The universe would enter into a "rip singularity" when all distances become infinitely large. Whereas in a "crunch singularity" all matter is infinitely concentrated, in a "rip singularity" all matter is infinitely spread out.^[113] However, observations of galaxy cluster speeds by the Chandra X-ray Observatory suggest that the true value of `w` is c. −0.991, meaning the Big Rip will not occur.^[114]
	50 billion	If the Earth and Moon are not engulfed by the Sun, by this time they will become tidelocked, with each showing only one face to the other.^[115]^[116] Thereafter, the tidal action of the white dwarf Sun will extract angular momentum from the system, causing the lunar orbit to decay and the Earth's spin to accelerate.^[117]
	65 billion	The Moon may end up colliding with the Earth due to the decay of its orbit, assuming the Earth and Moon are not engulfed by the red giant Sun.^[118]
	100 billion – 10¹² (1 trillion)	All the c. 47 galaxies^[119] of the Local Group will coalesce into a single large galaxy.^[5]
	100–150 billion	The Universe's expansion causes all galaxies beyond the former Milky Way's Local Group to disappear beyond the cosmic light horizon, removing them from the observable universe.^[120]
	150 billion	The cosmic microwave background cools from its current temperature of c. 2.7 K (−270.45 °C; −454.81 °F) to 0.3 K (−272.850 °C; −459.130 °F), rendering it essentially undetectable with current technology.^[121]
	325 billion	Estimated time by which the expansion of the universe isolates all gravitationally bound structures within their own cosmological horizon. At this point, the universe has expanded by a factor of more than 100 million, and even individual exiled stars are isolated.^[122]
	800 billion	Expected time when the net light emission from the combined "Milkomeda" galaxy begins to decline as the red dwarf stars pass through their blue dwarf stage of peak luminosity.^[123]
	10¹² (1 trillion)	Low estimate for the time until star formation ends in galaxies as galaxies are depleted of the gas clouds they need to form stars.^[5] The Universe's expansion, assuming a constant dark energy density, multiplies the wavelength of the cosmic microwave background by 10²⁹, exceeding the scale of the cosmic light horizon and rendering its evidence of the Big Bang undetectable. However, it may still be possible to determine the expansion of the universe through the study of hypervelocity stars.^[120]
	1.05×10¹² (1.05 trillion)	Estimated time by which the Universe will have expanded by a factor of more than 10²⁶, reducing the average particle density to less than one particle per cosmological horizon volume. Beyond this point, particles of unbound intergalactic matter are effectively isolated, and collisions between them cease to affect the future evolution of the Universe.^[122]
	2×10¹² (2 trillion)	Estimated time by which all objects beyond our Local Group are redshifted by a factor of more than 10⁵³. Even the highest energy gamma rays are stretched so that their wavelength is greater than the physical diameter of the horizon.^[124]
	4×10¹² (4 trillion)	Estimated time until the red dwarf star Proxima Centauri, the closest star to the Sun at a distance of 4.25 light-years, leaves the main sequence and becomes a white dwarf.^[125]
	10¹³ (10 trillion)	Estimated time of peak habitability in the universe, unless habitability around low-mass stars is suppressed.^[126]
	1.2×10¹³ (12 trillion)	Estimated time until the red dwarf VB 10, as of 2016 the least massive main sequence star with an estimated mass of 0.075 `M`_☉, runs out of hydrogen in its core and becomes a white dwarf.^[127]^[128]
	3×10¹³ (30 trillion)	Estimated time for stars (including the Sun) to undergo a close encounter with another star in local stellar neighborhoods. Whenever two stars (or stellar remnants) pass close to each other, their planets' orbits can be disrupted, potentially ejecting them from the system entirely. On average, the closer a planet's orbit to its parent star the longer it takes to be ejected in this manner, because it is gravitationally more tightly bound to the star.^[129]
	10¹⁴ (100 trillion)	High estimate for the time by which normal star formation ends in galaxies.^[5] This marks the transition from the Stelliferous Era to the Degenerate Era; with no free hydrogen to form new stars, all remaining stars slowly exhaust their fuel and die.^[4] By this time, the universe will have expanded by a factor of approximately 10²⁵⁵⁴.^[122]
	1.1–1.2×10¹⁴ (110–120 trillion)	Time by which all stars in the universe will have exhausted their fuel (the longest-lived stars, low-mass red dwarfs, have lifespans of roughly 10–20 trillion years).^[5] After this point, the stellar-mass objects remaining are stellar remnants (white dwarfs, neutron stars, black holes) and brown dwarfs. Collisions between brown dwarfs will create new red dwarfs on a marginal level: on average, about 100 stars will be shining in what was once the Milky Way. Collisions between stellar remnants will create occasional supernovae.^[5]
	10¹⁵ (1 quadrillion)	Estimated time until stellar close encounters detach all planets in star systems (including the Solar System) from their orbits.^[5] By this point, the Sun will have cooled to 5 K (−268.15 °C; −450.67 °F).^[130]
	10¹⁹ to 10²⁰ (10–100 quintillion)	Estimated time until 90–99% of brown dwarfs and stellar remnants (including the Sun) are ejected from galaxies. When two objects pass close enough to each other, they exchange orbital energy, with lower-mass objects tending to gain energy. Through repeated encounters, the lower-mass objects can gain enough energy in this manner to be ejected from their galaxy. This process eventually causes the Milky Way to eject the majority of its brown dwarfs and stellar remnants.^[5]^[131]
	10²⁰ (100 quintillion)	Estimated time until the Earth collides with the black dwarf Sun due to the decay of its orbit via emission of gravitational radiation,^[132] if the Earth is not ejected from its orbit by a stellar encounter or engulfed by the Sun during its red giant phase.^[132]
	10²³ (100 sextillion)	Around this timescale most stellar remnants and other objects are ejected from the remains of their galactic cluster.^[133]
	10³⁰ (1 nonillion)	Estimated time until those stellar remnants not ejected from galaxies (1–10%) fall into their galaxies' central supermassive black holes. By this point, with binary stars having fallen into each other, and planets into their stars, via emission of gravitational radiation, only solitary objects (stellar remnants, brown dwarfs, ejected planetary-mass objects, black holes) will remain in the universe.^[5]
	2×10³⁶	Estimated time for all nucleons in the observable universe to decay, if the hypothesized proton half-life takes its smallest possible value (8.2×10³³ years).^[134]^[135]^{[note 4]}
	3×10⁴³	Estimated time for all nucleons in the observable universe to decay, if the hypothesized proton half-life takes the largest possible value, 10⁴¹ years,^[5] assuming that the Big Bang was inflationary and that the same process that made baryons predominate over anti-baryons in the early Universe makes protons decay.^[135]^{[note 4]} By this time, if protons do decay, the Black Hole Era, in which black holes are the only remaining celestial objects, begins.^[4]^[5]
	10⁶⁵	Assuming that protons do not decay, estimated time for rigid objects, from free-floating rocks in space to planets, to rearrange their atoms and molecules via quantum tunneling. On this timescale, any discrete body of matter "behaves like a liquid" and becomes a smooth sphere due to diffusion and gravity.^[132]
	2×10⁶⁶	Estimated time until a black hole of 1 solar mass decays into subatomic particles by Hawking radiation.^[136]
	8×10⁸⁶	Estimated time until Sagittarius A*, the supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way with the mass of 4.1 million solar masses, vanishes by the emission of Hawking radiation^[136], assuming it does not accrete additional matter nor merge with other black holes like that of the Andromeda. It might be the very last entity from the Milky Way to disappear, and the last evidence of the galaxy's existence.
	6×10⁹⁹	Estimated time until the supermassive black hole of TON 618, as of 2018 the most massive known with a mass of 66 billion solar masses, dissipates by the emission of Hawking radiation,^[136] assuming zero angular momentum (that it does not rotate).
	1.16×10¹⁰⁹	Estimated time until supermassive black holes of 10¹⁴ (100 trillion) solar masses, predicted to grow during the gravitational collapse of superclusters of galaxies,^[137] decays by Hawking radiation.^[136] This marks the end of the Black Hole Era. Beyond this time, if protons do decay, the Universe enters the Dark Era, in which all physical objects have decayed to subatomic particles, gradually winding down to their final energy state in the heat death of the universe.^[4]^[5]
	10¹³⁹	2018 estimate of Standard Model lifetime before collapse of a false vacuum; 95% confidence interval is 10⁵⁸ to 10⁵⁴⁹ years due in part to uncertainty about the top quark mass.^[138]
	10²⁰⁰	Estimated high time for all nucleons in the observable universe to decay, if they do not via the above process, through any one of many different mechanisms allowed in modern particle physics (higher-order baryon non-conservation processes, virtual black holes, sphalerons, etc.) on time scales of 10⁴⁶ to 10²⁰⁰ years.^[4]
	10^1100-32000	Estimated time for those black dwarfs with masses at or above 1.2 times the mass of the Sun to undergo supernovae as a result of slow silicon-nickel-iron fusion, as the declining electron fraction lowers their Chandrasekhar limit, assuming protons do not decay.^[139]
	10¹⁵⁰⁰	Assuming protons do not decay, the estimated time until all baryonic matter in stellar-mass objects has either fused together via muon-catalyzed fusion to form iron-56 or decayed from a higher mass element into iron-56 to form an iron star.^[132]
	$10^{10^{26}}$ ^{[note 5]}^{[note 6]}	Low estimate for the time until all iron stars collapse via quantum tunnelling into black holes, assuming no proton decay or virtual black holes, and that Planck-scale black holes can exist.^[132] On this vast timescale, even ultra-stable iron stars will have been destroyed by quantum tunnelling events. In this scenario, iron stars decay directly to black holes, as this decay mode is vastly more favourable than decaying into a neutron star (which has an expected timescale of $10^{10^{76}}$ years)^[132], and later decaying into a black hole. The subsequent evaporation of each resulting black hole into subatomic particles (a process lasting roughly 10¹⁰⁰ years), and subsequent shift to the Dark Era is on these timescales instantaneous.
	$10^{10^{50}}$ ^{[note 1]}^{[note 6]}^{[note 7]}	Estimated time for a Boltzmann brain to appear in the vacuum via a spontaneous entropy decrease.^[7]
	$10^{10^{76}}$ ^{[note 6]}	High estimate for the time until all iron stars collapse into neutron stars or black holes, assuming no proton decay or virtual black holes, and that black holes below the Chandrasekhar mass cannot form directly^[132]. On these timescales, neutron stars above the Chandrasekhar mass rapidly collpase into black holes, and black holes fored by these processes instantaneously evaporate into subatomic particles. This is also the highest estimate possible time for Black Hole Era (and subsequent Dark Era) to finally commence. Beyond this point, it is almost certain that Universe will contain no more baryonic matter and will be an almost pure vacuum (possibly accompanied with the presence of a false vacuum)^{[citation needed]} until it reaches its final energy state, assuming it does not happen before this time.
	$10^{10^{120}}$ ^{[note 6]}	Highest estimate for the time it takes for the universe to reach its final energy state, even in the presence of a false vacuum.^[7]
	$10^{10^{10^{56}}}$ ^{[note 1]}^{[note 6]}	Time for quantum effects to generate a new Big Bang, resulting in a new universe. Around this vast timeframe, quantum tunnelling in any isolated patch of the now-empty universe could generate new inflationary events, resulting in new Big Bangs giving birth to new universes.^[140] (Because the total number of ways in which all the subatomic particles in the observable universe can be combined is $10^{10^{115}}$ ,^[141]^[142] a number which, when multiplied by $10^{10^{10^{56}}}$ , disappears into the rounding error, this is also the time required for a quantum-tunnelled and quantum fluctuation-generated Big Bang to produce a new universe identical to our own, assuming that every new universe contained at least the same number of subatomic particles and obeyed laws of physics within the landscape predicted by string theory.)^[143]^[144]

Humanity[]

	Years from now	Event
	10,000	Most probable estimated lifespan of technological civilization, according to Frank Drake's original formulation of the Drake equation.^[145]
	10,000	If globalization trends lead to panmixia, human genetic variation will no longer be regionalized, as the effective population size will equal the actual population size.^[146]
	10,000	Humanity has a 95% probability of being extinct by this date, according to Brandon Carter's formulation of the controversial Doomsday argument, which argues that half of the humans who will ever have lived have probably already been born.^[147]
	20,000	According to the glottochronology linguistic model of Morris Swadesh, future languages should retain just 1 out of 100 "core vocabulary" words on their Swadesh list compared to that of their current progenitors.^[148]
	100,000+	Time required to terraform Mars with an oxygen-rich breathable atmosphere, using only plants with solar efficiency comparable to the biosphere currently found on Earth.^[149]
	100,000 – 1 million	Estimated time by which humanity could colonize our Milky Way galaxy and become capable of harnessing all the energy of the galaxy, assuming a velocity of 10% the speed of light.^[150]
	2 million	Vertebrate species separated for this long will generally undergo allopatric speciation.^[151] Evolutionary biologist James W. Valentine predicted that if humanity has been dispersed among genetically isolated space colonies over this time, the galaxy will host an evolutionary radiation of multiple human species with a "diversity of form and adaptation that would astound us".^[152] This would be a natural process of isolated populations, unrelated to potential deliberate genetic enhancement technologies.
	7.8 million	Humanity has a 95% probability of being extinct by this date, according to J. Richard Gott's formulation of the controversial Doomsday argument.^[153]
	100 million	Maximal estimated lifespan of technological civilization, according to Frank Drake's original formulation of the Drake equation.^[154]
	1 billion	Estimated time for an astroengineering project to alter the Earth's orbit, compensating for the Sun's rising brightness and outward migration of the habitable zone, accomplished by repeated asteroid gravity assists.^[155]^[156]

Spacecraft and space exploration[]

To date five spacecraft (Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11 and New Horizons) are on trajectories which will take them out of the Solar System and into interstellar space. Barring an extremely unlikely collision with some object, the craft should persist indefinitely.^[157]

	Years from now	Event
	1,000	The SNAP-10A nuclear satellite, launched in 1965 to an orbit 700 km (430 mi) above Earth, will return to the surface.^[158]^[159]
	16,900	Voyager 1 passes within 3.5 light-years of Proxima Centauri.^[160]
	18,500	Pioneer 11 passes within 3.4 light-years of Alpha Centauri.^[160]
	20,300	Voyager 2 passes within 2.9 light-years of Alpha Centauri.^[160]
	25,000	The Arecibo message, a collection of radio data transmitted on 16 November 1974, reaches the distance of its destination, the globular cluster Messier 13.^[161] This is the only interstellar radio message sent to such a distant region of the galaxy. There will be a 24-light-year shift in the cluster's position in the galaxy during the time it takes the message to reach it, but as the cluster is 168 light-years in diameter, the message will still reach its destination.^[162] Any reply will take at least another 25,000 years from the time of its transmission (assuming faster-than-light communication is impossible).
	33,800	Pioneer 10 passes within 3.4 light-years of Ross 248.^[160]
	34,400	Pioneer 10 passes within 3.4 light-years of Alpha Centauri.^[160]
	42,200	Voyager 2 passes within 1.7 light-years of Ross 248.^[160]
	44,100	Voyager 1 passes within 1.8 light-years of Gliese 445.^[160]
	46,600	Pioneer 11 passes within 1.9 light-years of Gliese 445.^[160]
	50,000	The KEO space time capsule, if it is launched, will reenter Earth's atmosphere.^[163]
	90,300	Pioneer 10 passes within 0.76 light-years of HIP 117795.^[160]
	306,100	Voyager 1 passes within 1 light-year of the M-type variable star .^[160]
	492,300	Voyager 1 passes within 1.3 light-years of HD 28343.^[160]
	1.2 million	Pioneer 11 comes within 3 light-years of Delta Scuti.^[160]
	1.3 million	Pioneer 10 comes within 1.5 light-years of the K-type star .^[160]
	2 million	Pioneer 10 passes near the bright star Aldebaran.^[164]
	4 million	Pioneer 11 passes near one of the stars in the constellation Aquila.^[164]
	8 million	Most probable lifespan of Pioneer 10 plaque, before the etching is destroyed by poorly understood interstellar erosion processes.^[165] The LAGEOS satellites' orbits will decay, and they will re-enter Earth's atmosphere, carrying with them a message to any far future descendants of humanity, and a map of the continents as they are expected to appear then.^[166]
	1 billion	Estimated lifespan of the two Voyager Golden Records, before the information stored on them is rendered unrecoverable.^[167]
	10²⁰ (100 quintillion)	Estimated timescale for the Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft to collide with a star (or stellar remnant).^[160]

Technological projects[]

	Date or years from now	Event
	3183 CE	The Time Pyramid, a public art work started in 1993 at Wemding, Germany, is scheduled for completion.^[168]
	2000	Maximum lifespan of the data films in Arctic World Archive, a repository which contains code of open source projects on GitHub along with other data of historical interests, if stored in optimum condition.^[169]
	6939 CE	The Westinghouse Time Capsules from the years 1939 and 1964 are scheduled to be opened.^[170]
	6970 CE	The last Expo '70 Time Capsule from the year 1970, buried under a monument near Osaka Castle, Japan is scheduled to be opened.^[171]^[172]
	28 May 8113 CE	The Crypt of Civilization, a time capsule located at Oglethorpe University in Atlanta, Georgia, is scheduled to be opened after being sealed before World War II.^[173]^[174]
	10,000	Planned lifespan of the Long Now Foundation's several ongoing projects, including a 10,000-year clock known as the Clock of the Long Now, the Rosetta Project, and the Long Bet Project.^[175] Estimated lifespan of the HD-Rosetta analog disc, an ion beam-etched writing medium on nickel plate, a technology developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory and later commercialized. (The Rosetta Project uses this technology, named after the Rosetta Stone.)
	10,000	Projected lifespan of Norway's Svalbard Global Seed Vault.^[176]
	14 September 30,828 CE	Maximum system time for 64-bit NTFS-based Windows operating system.^[177]
	13 September 275,760 CE	Maximum system time for JavaScript programming language.^[178]
	1 million	Estimated lifespan of Memory of Mankind (MOM) self storage-style repository in Hallstatt salt mine in Austria, which stores information on inscribed tablets of stoneware.^[179] Planned lifespan of the Human Document Project being developed at the University of Twente in the Netherlands.^[180]
	292,278,994 CE (292 million)	Numeric overflow in system time for Java computer programs.^[181]^{[better source needed]}
	1 billion	Estimated lifespan of "Nanoshuttle memory device" using an iron nanoparticle moved as a molecular switch through a carbon nanotube, a technology developed at the University of California at Berkeley.^[182]
	292,277,026,596 CE (292 billion)	Numeric overflow in system time for 64-bit Unix systems.^[183]
	3×10¹⁹ – 3×10²¹ (30 quintillion – 3 sextillion)	Estimated lifespan of "Superman memory crystal" data storage using femtosecond laser-etched nanostructures in glass, a technology developed at the University of Southampton, at an ambient temperature of 30 °C (86 °F; 303 K).^[184]^[185]

Human constructs[]

	Years from now	Event
	50,000	Estimated atmospheric lifetime of tetrafluoromethane, the most durable greenhouse gas.^[186]
	1 million	Current glass objects in the environment will be decomposed.^[187] Various public monuments composed of hard granite will have eroded one metre, in a moderate climate, assuming a rate of 1 Bubnoff unit (1 mm in 1,000 years, or ≈1 inch in 25,000 years).^[188] Without maintenance, the Great Pyramid of Giza will erode into unrecognizability.^[189] On the Moon, Neil Armstrong's "one small step" footprint at Tranquility Base will erode by this time, along with those left by all twelve Apollo moonwalkers, due to the accumulated effects of space weathering.^[190]^[191] (Normal erosion processes active on Earth are not present due to the Moon's almost complete lack of atmosphere.)
	7.2 million	Without maintenance, Mount Rushmore will erode into unrecognizability.^[192]
	100 million	Future archaeologists should be able to identify an "Urban Stratum" of fossilized great coastal cities, mostly through the remains of underground infrastructure such as building foundations and utility tunnels.^[193]

Nuclear power[]

	Years from now	Event
	10,000	The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant, for nuclear weapons waste, is planned to be protected until this time, with a "Permanent Marker" system designed to warn off visitors through both multiple languages (the six UN languages and Navajo) and through pictograms.^[194] The Human Interference Task Force has provided the theoretical basis for United States plans for future nuclear semiotics.
	24,000	The Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, the 2,600-square-kilometre (1,000 sq mi) area of Ukraine and Belarus left deserted by the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, will return to normal levels of radiation.^[195]
	30,000	Estimated supply lifespan of fission-based breeder reactor reserves, using known sources, assuming 2009 world energy consumption.^[196]
	60,000	Estimated supply lifespan of fission-based light-water reactor reserves if it is possible to extract all the uranium from seawater, assuming 2009 world energy consumption.^[196]
	211,000	Half-life of technetium-99,^[197] a long-lived fission product in uranium-derived nuclear waste.^[198]
	250,000	The estimated minimum time at which the spent plutonium stored at New Mexico's Waste Isolation Pilot Plant will cease to be radiologically lethal to humans.^[199]
	15.7 million	Half-life of iodine-129,^[197] the most durable long-lived fission product in uranium-derived nuclear waste.^[200]
	60 million	Estimated supply lifespan of fusion power reserves if it is possible to extract all the lithium from seawater, assuming 1995 world energy consumption.^[201]
	5 billion	Estimated supply lifespan of fission-based breeder reactor reserves if it is possible to extract all the uranium from seawater, assuming 1983 world energy consumption.^[202]
	150 billion	Estimated supply lifespan of fusion power reserves if it is possible to extract all the deuterium from seawater, assuming 1995 world energy consumption.^[201]

Graphical timelines[]

For graphical, logarithmic timelines of these events see:

Graphical timeline of the universe (to 8 billion years from now)
Graphical timeline of the Stelliferous Era (to 10²⁰ years from now)
Graphical timeline from Big Bang to Heat Death (to 10¹⁰⁰⁰ years from now)

Notes[]

^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m This represents the time by which the event will most probably have happened. It may occur randomly at any time from the present.
^ Units are short scale.
^ This has been a tricky question for quite a while; see the 2001 paper by Rybicki, K. R. and Denis, C. However, according to the latest calculations, this happens with a very high degree of certainty.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Around 264 half-lives. Tyson et al. employ the computation with a different value for half-life.
^ $10^{10^{26}}$ is 1 followed by 10²⁶ (100 septillion) zeroes
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Although listed in years for convenience, the numbers beyond this point are so vast that their digits would remain unchanged regardless of which conventional units they were listed in, be they nanoseconds or star lifespans.
^ $10^{10^{50}}$ is 1 followed by 10⁵⁰ (100 quindecillion) zeroes

References[]

^ Rescher, Nicholas (1998). Predicting the future: An introduction to the theory of forecasting. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0791435533.
^ "cds.cern.ch" (PDF). Archived from the original on 21 August 2021.
^ Nave, C.R. "Second Law of Thermodynamics". Georgia State University. Archived from the original on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Adams, Fred; Laughlin, Greg (1999). The Five Ages of the Universe. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 978-0684854229.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Adams, Fred C.; Laughlin, Gregory (1997). "A dying universe: the long-term fate and evolution of astrophysical objects". Reviews of Modern Physics. 69 (2): 337–372. arXiv:astro-ph/9701131. Bibcode:1997RvMP...69..337A. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.69.337. S2CID 12173790.
^ Komatsu, E.; Smith, K. M.; Dunkley, J.; et al. (2011). "Seven-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Cosmological Interpretation". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 192 (2): 18. arXiv:1001.4731. Bibcode:2011ApJS..192...19W. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/192/2/18. S2CID 17581520.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Linde, Andrei (2007). "Sinks in the Landscape, Boltzmann Brains and the Cosmological Constant Problem". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 2007 (1): 022. arXiv:hep-th/0611043. Bibcode:2007JCAP...01..022L. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.266.8334. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2007/01/022. S2CID 16984680.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Finkleman, David; Allen, Steve; Seago, John; Seaman, Rob; Seidelmann, P. Kenneth (June 2011). "The Future of Time: UTC and the Leap Second". American Scientist. 99 (4): 312. arXiv:1106.3141. Bibcode:2011arXiv1106.3141F. doi:10.1511/2011.91.312. S2CID 118403321.
^ Mengel, M.; Levermann, A. (4 May 2014). "Ice plug prevents irreversible discharge from East Antarctica". Nature Climate Change. 4 (6): 451–455. Bibcode:2014NatCC...4..451M. doi:10.1038/nclimate2226.
^ Hockey, T.; Trimble, V. (2010). "Public reaction to a V = −12.5 supernova". The Observatory. 130 (3): 167. Bibcode:2010Obs...130..167H.
^ Plait, Phil (2002). Bad Astronomy: Misconceptions and Misuses Revealed, from Astrology to the Moon Landing "Hoax". John Wiley and Sons. pp. 55–56.^{[ISBN missing]}
^ Mowat, Laura (14 July 2017). "Africa's desert to become lush green tropics as monsoons MOVE to Sahara, scientists say". Daily Express. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
^ "Orbit: Earth's Extraordinary Journey". ExptU. 23 December 2015. Archived from the original on 14 July 2018. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
^ "'Super-eruption' timing gets an update – and not in humanity's favour". Nature. 30 November 2017. p. 8. doi:10.1038/d41586-017-07777-6. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 28 August 2020.
^ "Scientists predict a volcanic eruption that would destroy humanity could happen sooner than previously thought". The Independent. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2020.
^ Schorghofer, Norbert (23 September 2008). "Temperature response of Mars to Milankovitch cycles". Geophysical Research Letters. 35 (18): L18201. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..3518201S. doi:10.1029/2008GL034954.
^ Beech, Martin (2009). Terraforming: The Creating of Habitable Worlds. Springer. pp. 138–142. Bibcode:2009tchw.book.....B.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Matthews, R. A. J. (Spring 1994). "The Close Approach of Stars in the Solar Neighborhood". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 35 (1): 1. Bibcode:1994QJRAS..35....1M.
^ Berger, A & Loutre, MF (2002). "Climate: an exceptionally long interglacial ahead?". Science. 297 (5585): 1287–1288. doi:10.1126/science.1076120. PMID 12193773. S2CID 128923481.
^ "Human-made climate change suppresses the next ice age – Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research". pik-potsdam.de. Archived from the original on 7 January 2021. Retrieved 21 October 2020.
^ "Niagara Falls Geology Facts & Figures". Niagara Parks. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
^ Bastedo, Jamie (1994). Shield Country: The Life and Times of the Oldest Piece of the Planet. Komatik Series, ISSN 0840-4488. 4. Arctic Institute of North America of the University of Calgary. p. 202. ISBN 9780919034792. Archived from the original on 3 November 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
^ Tapping, Ken (2005). "The Unfixed Stars". National Research Council Canada. Archived from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
^ Monnier, J. D.; Tuthill, P.; Lopez, GB; et al. (1999). "The Last Gasps of VY Canis Majoris: Aperture Synthesis and Adaptive Optics Imagery". The Astrophysical Journal. 512 (1): 351–361. arXiv:astro-ph/9810024. Bibcode:1999ApJ...512..351M. doi:10.1086/306761. S2CID 16672180.
^ Schaetzl, Randall J.; Anderson, Sharon (2005). Soils: Genesis and Geomorphology. Cambridge University Press. p. 105. ISBN 9781139443463.
^ David Archer (2009). The Long Thaw: How Humans Are Changing the Next 100,000 Years of Earth's Climate. Princeton University Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-691-13654-7.
^ "Frequently Asked Questions". Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park. 2011. Archived from the original on 26 October 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2011.
^ Tuthill, Peter; Monnier, John; Lawrance, Nicholas; Danchi, William; Owocki, Stan; Gayley, Kenneth (2008). "The Prototype Colliding-Wind Pinwheel WR 104". The Astrophysical Journal. 675 (1): 698–710. arXiv:0712.2111. Bibcode:2008ApJ...675..698T. doi:10.1086/527286. S2CID 119293391.
^ Tuthill, Peter. "WR 104: Technical Questions". Archived from the original on 3 April 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
^ Bostrom, Nick (March 2002). "Existential Risks: Analyzing Human Extinction Scenarios and Related Hazards". Journal of Evolution and Technology. 9 (1). Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2012.
^ "Badlands National Park – Nature & Science – Geologic Formations". Archived from the original on 15 February 2015. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
^ Landstreet, John D. (2003). Physical Processes in the Solar System: An introduction to the physics of asteroids, comets, moons and planets. Keenan & Darlington. p. 121. ISBN 9780973205107. Archived from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
^ Sessions, Larry (29 July 2009). "Betelgeuse will explode someday". EarthSky Communications, Inc. Archived from the original on 23 May 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2010.
^ "A giant star is acting strange, and astronomers are buzzing". National Geographic. 26 December 2019. Archived from the original on 8 January 2021. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b "Uranus's colliding moons". astronomy.com. 2017. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 23 September 2017.
^ Bailer-Jones, C.A.L.; Rybizki, J; Andrae, R.; Fouesnea, M. (2018). "New stellar encounters discovered in the second Gaia data release". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 616: A37. arXiv:1805.07581. Bibcode:2018A&A...616A..37B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833456. S2CID 56269929.
^ Filip Berski; Piotr A. Dybczyński (25 October 2016). "Gliese 710 will pass the Sun even closer". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 595 (L10): L10. Bibcode:2016A&A...595L..10B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629835.
^ Goldstein, Natalie (2009). Global Warming. Infobase Publishing. p. 53. ISBN 9780816067695. Archived from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020. The last time acidification on this scale occurred (about 65 mya) it took more than 2 million years for corals and other marine organisms to recover; some scientists today believe, optimistically, that it could take tens of thousands of years for the ocean to regain the chemistry it had in preindustrial times.
^ "Grand Canyon – Geology – A dynamic place". Views of the National Parks. National Park Service. Archived from the original on 25 April 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
^ Horner, J.; Evans, N.W.; Bailey, M. E. (2004). "Simulations of the Population of Centaurs I: The Bulk Statistics". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 354 (3): 798–810. arXiv:astro-ph/0407400. Bibcode:2004MNRAS.354..798H. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08240.x. S2CID 16002759.
^ Jillian Scudder. "How Long Until The Moon Slows The Earth to a 25 Hour Day?". Forbes. Archived from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
^ Haddok, Eitan (29 September 2008). "Birth of an Ocean: The Evolution of Ethiopia's Afar Depression". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
^ Bilham, Roger (November 2000). "NOVA Online | Everest | Birth of the Himalaya". www.pbs.org. Archived from the original on 19 June 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2021.
^ Kirchner, James W.; Weil, Anne (9 March 2000). "Delayed biological recovery from extinctions throughout the fossil record". Nature. 404 (6774): 177–180. Bibcode:2000Natur.404..177K. doi:10.1038/35004564. PMID 10724168. S2CID 4428714.
^ Wilson, Edward O. (1999). The Diversity of Life. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 216. ISBN 9780393319408. Archived from the original on 4 October 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
^ Wilson, Edward Osborne (1992). "The Human Impact". The Diversity of Life. London: Penguin UK (published 2001). ISBN 9780141931739. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
^ Bills, Bruce G.; Gregory A. Neumann; David E. Smith; Maria T. Zuber (2005). "Improved estimate of tidal dissipation within Mars from MOLA observations of the shadow of Phobos". Journal of Geophysical Research. 110 (E7). E07004. Bibcode:2005JGRE..110.7004B. doi:10.1029/2004je002376.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Scotese, Christopher R. "Pangea Ultima will form 250 million years in the Future". Paleomap Project. Archived from the original on 25 February 2019. Retrieved 13 March 2006.
^ Garrison, Tom (2009). Essentials of Oceanography (5th ed.). Brooks/Cole. p. 62.^{[ISBN missing]}
^ "Continents in Collision: Pangea Ultima". NASA. 2000. Archived from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
^ "Geology". Encyclopedia of Appalachia. University of Tennessee Press. 2011. Archived from the original on 21 May 2014. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
^ Hancock, Gregory; Kirwan, Matthew (January 2007). "Summit erosion rates deduced from 10Be: Implications for relief production in the central Appalachians" (PDF). Geology. 35 (1): 89. Bibcode:2007Geo....35...89H. doi:10.1130/g23147a.1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 December 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
^ Yorath, C. J. (2017). Of rocks, mountains and Jasper: a visitor's guide to the geology of Jasper National Park. Dundurn Press. p. 30. ISBN 9781459736122. [...] 'How long will the Rockies last?' [...] The numbers suggest that in about 50 to 60 million years the remaining mountains will be gone, and the park will be reduced to a rolling plain much like the Canadian prairies.
^ Dethier, David P.; Ouimet, W.; Bierman, P. R.; Rood, D. H.; et al. (2014). "Basins and bedrock: Spatial variation in 10Be erosion rates and increasing relief in the southern Rocky Mountains, USA" (PDF). Geology. 42 (2): 167–170. Bibcode:2014Geo....42..167D. doi:10.1130/G34922.1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 December 2018. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
^ Patzek, Tad W. (2008). "Can the Earth Deliver the Biomass-for-Fuel we Demand?". In Pimentel, David (ed.). Biofuels, Solar and Wind as Renewable Energy Systems: Benefits and Risks. Springer. ISBN 9781402086533. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
^ Perlman, David (14 October 2006). "Kiss that Hawaiian timeshare goodbye / Islands will sink in 80 million years". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
^ Nelson, Stephen A. "Meteorites, Impacts, and Mass Extinction". Tulane University. Archived from the original on 6 August 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
^ Lang, Kenneth R. (2003). The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System. Cambridge University Press. p. 329. ISBN 9780521813068. [...] all the rings should collapse [...] in about 100 million years.
^ Schröder, K.-P.; Connon Smith, Robert (2008). "Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386 (1): 155–63. arXiv:0801.4031. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..155S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x. S2CID 10073988.
^ Jillian Scudder. "How Long Until The Moon Slows The Earth to a 25 Hour Day?". Forbes. Archived from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
^ Hayes, Wayne B. (2007). "Is the Outer Solar System Chaotic?". Nature Physics. 3 (10): 689–691. arXiv:astro-ph/0702179. Bibcode:2007NatPh...3..689H. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.337.7948. doi:10.1038/nphys728. S2CID 18705038.
^ Leong, Stacy (2002). "Period of the Sun's Orbit Around the Galaxy (Cosmic Year)". The Physics Factbook. Archived from the original on 22 August 2011. Retrieved 2 April 2007.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Williams, Caroline; Nield, Ted (20 October 2007). "Pangaea, the comeback". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 13 April 2008. Retrieved 2 January 2014.
^ Calkin, P. E.; Young, G. M. (1996), "Global glaciation chronologies and causes of glaciation", in Menzies, John (ed.), Past glacial environments: sediments, forms, and techniques, Glacial environments, 2, Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 9–75, ISBN 978-0-7506-2352-0.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Perry, Perry; Russel, Thompson (1997). Applied climatology : principles and practice. London: Routledge. p. 127–128. ISBN 9780415141000.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e O'Malley-James, Jack T.; Greaves, Jane S.; Raven, John A.; Cockell, Charles S. (2014). "Swansong Biosphere II: The final signs of life on terrestrial planets near the end of their habitable lifetimes". International Journal of Astrobiology. 13 (3): 229–243. arXiv:1310.4841. Bibcode:2014IJAsB..13..229O. doi:10.1017/S1473550413000426. S2CID 119252386.
^ Strom, Robert G.; Schaber, Gerald G.; Dawson, Douglas D. (25 May 1994). "The global resurfacing of Venus". Journal of Geophysical Research. 99 (E5): 10899–10926. Bibcode:1994JGR....9910899S. doi:10.1029/94JE00388. Archived from the original on 16 September 2020. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
^ Nield 2007, pp. 20–21.
^ Hoffman, Paul F. (November 1992). "Rodinia to Gondwanaland to Pangea to Amasia: alternating kinematics of supercontinental fusion". Atlantic Geology. 28 (3): 323–327.
^ Minard, Anne (2009). "Gamma-Ray Burst Caused Mass Extinction?". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 5 July 2015. Retrieved 27 August 2012.
^ "Questions Frequently Asked by the Public About Eclipses". NASA. Archived from the original on 12 March 2010. Retrieved 7 March 2010.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d O'Malley-James, Jack T.; Greaves, Jane S.; Raven, John A.; Cockell, Charles S. (2012). "Swansong Biospheres: Refuges for life and novel microbial biospheres on terrestrial planets near the end of their habitable lifetimes". International Journal of Astrobiology. 12 (2): 99–112. arXiv:1210.5721. Bibcode:2013IJAsB..12...99O. doi:10.1017/S147355041200047X. S2CID 73722450.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Heath, Martin J.; Doyle, Laurance R. (2009). "Circumstellar Habitable Zones to Ecodynamic Domains: A Preliminary Review and Suggested Future Directions". arXiv:0912.2482 [astro-ph.EP].
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Ward, Peter D.; Brownlee, Donald (2003). Rare earth : why complex life is uncommon in the universe. New York: Copernicus. p. 117-128. ISBN 978-0387952895.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Franck, S.; Bounama, C.; Von Bloh, W. (November 2005). "Causes and timing of future biosphere extinction" (PDF). Biogeosciences Discussions. 2 (6): 1665–1679. Bibcode:2005BGD.....2.1665F. doi:10.5194/bgd-2-1665-2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 2 September 2019.
^ Bounama, Christine; Franck, S.; Von Bloh, David (2001). "The fate of Earth's ocean". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 5 (4): 569–575. Bibcode:2001HESS....5..569B. doi:10.5194/hess-5-569-2001.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Schröder, K.-P.; Connon Smith, Robert (1 May 2008). "Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386 (1): 155–163. arXiv:0801.4031. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..155S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x. S2CID 10073988.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Brownlee 2010, p. 95.
^ Brownlee 2010, p. 79.
^ Li King-Fai; Pahlevan, Kaveh; Kirschvink, Joseph L.; Yung, Luk L. (2009). "Atmospheric pressure as a natural climate regulator for a terrestrial planet with a biosphere". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (24): 9576–9579. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.9576L. doi:10.1073/pnas.0809436106. PMC 2701016. PMID 19487662.
^ Caldeira, Ken; Kasting, James F. (1992). "The life span of the biosphere revisited". Nature. 360 (6406): 721–23. Bibcode:1992Natur.360..721C. doi:10.1038/360721a0. PMID 11536510. S2CID 4360963.
^ Franck, S. (2000). "Reduction of biosphere life span as a consequence of geodynamics". Tellus B. 52 (1): 94–107. Bibcode:2000TellB..52...94F. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0889.2000.00898.x.
^ Lenton, Timothy M.; von Bloh, Werner (2001). "Biotic feedback extends the life span of the biosphere". Geophysical Research Letters. 28 (9): 1715–1718. Bibcode:2001GeoRL..28.1715L. doi:10.1029/2000GL012198.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Kargel, Jeffrey Stuart (2004). Mars: A Warmer, Wetter Planet. Springer. p. 509. ISBN 978-1852335687. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2007.
^ Neron de Surgey, O.; Laskar, J. (1996). "On the Long Term Evolution of the Spin of the Earth". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 318: 975. Bibcode:1997A&A...318..975N.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Cox, J. T.; Loeb, Abraham (2007). "The Collision Between The Milky Way And Andromeda". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386 (1): 461–474. arXiv:0705.1170. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..461C. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13048.x. S2CID 14964036.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Li, King-Fai; Pahlevan, Kaveh; Kirschvink, Joseph L.; Yung, Yuk L. (16 June 2009). "Atmospheric pressure as a natural climate regulator for a terrestrial planet with a biosphere". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (24): 9576–9579. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.9576L. doi:10.1073/pnas.0809436106. PMC 2701016. PMID 19487662.
^ Waszek, Lauren; Irving, Jessica; Deuss, Arwen (20 February 2011). "Reconciling the Hemispherical Structure of Earth's Inner Core With its Super-Rotation". Nature Geoscience. 4 (4): 264–267. Bibcode:2011NatGe...4..264W. doi:10.1038/ngeo1083.
^ McDonough, W. F. (2004). "Compositional Model for the Earth's Core". Treatise on Geochemistry. 2. pp. 547–568. Bibcode:2003TrGeo...2..547M. doi:10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/02015-6. ISBN 978-0080437514.
^ Luhmann, J. G.; Johnson, R. E.; Zhang, M. H. G. (1992). "Evolutionary impact of sputtering of the Martian atmosphere by O⁺ pickup ions". Geophysical Research Letters. 19 (21): 2151–2154. Bibcode:1992GeoRL..19.2151L. doi:10.1029/92GL02485.
^ Quirin Shlermeler (3 March 2005). "Solar wind hammers the ozone layer". News@nature. doi:10.1038/news050228-12.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Adams 2008, pp. 33–47.
^ Adams 2008, pp. 33–44.
^ "Study: Earth May Collide With Another Planet". Fox News Channel. 11 June 2009. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2011.
^ Guinan, E. F.; Ribas, I. (2002). Montesinos, Benjamin; Gimenez, Alvaro; Guinan, Edward F. (eds.). "Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate". ASP Conference Proceedings. 269: 85–106. Bibcode:2002ASPC..269...85G.
^ Kasting, J. F. (June 1988). "Runaway and moist greenhouse atmospheres and the evolution of earth and Venus". Icarus. 74 (3): 472–494. Bibcode:1988Icar...74..472K. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(88)90116-9. PMID 11538226. Archived from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
^ Chyba, C. F.; Jankowski, D. G.; Nicholson, P. D. (1989). "Tidal Evolution in the Neptune-Triton System". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 219 (1–2): 23. Bibcode:1989A&A...219L..23C.
^ Cain, Fraser (2007). "When Our Galaxy Smashes into Andromeda, What Happens to the Sun?". Universe Today. Archived from the original on 17 May 2007. Retrieved 16 May 2007.
^ Cox, T. J.; Loeb, Abraham (2008). "The Collision Between The Milky Way And Andromeda". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386 (1): 461–474. arXiv:0705.1170. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..461C. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13048.x. S2CID 14964036.
^ "NASA's Hubble Shows Milky Way is Destined for Head-On Collision". NASA. 31 May 2012. Archived from the original on 30 April 2020. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
^ Dowd, Maureen (29 May 2012). "Andromeda Is Coming!". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 9 January 2014. [NASA's David Morrison] explained that the Andromeda-Milky Way collision would just be two great big fuzzy balls of stars and mostly empty space passing through each other harmlessly over the course of millions of years.
^ Braine, J.; Lisenfeld, U.; Duc, P. A.; et al. (2004). "Colliding molecular clouds in head-on galaxy collisions". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 418 (2): 419–428. arXiv:astro-ph/0402148. Bibcode:2004A&A...418..419B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20035732. S2CID 15928576.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Schroder, K. P.; Connon Smith, Robert (2008). "Distant Future of the Sun and Earth Revisited". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386 (1): 155–163. arXiv:0801.4031. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..155S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x. S2CID 10073988.
^ Taylor, David. "The End Of The Sun". Archived from the original on 12 May 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2021.
^ Powell, David (22 January 2007). "Earth's Moon Destined to Disintegrate". Space.com. Tech Media Network. Archived from the original on 27 June 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2010.
^ Lorenz, Ralph D.; Lunine, Jonathan I.; McKay, Christopher P. (1997). "Titan under a red giant sun: A new kind of "habitable" moon" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 24 (22): 2905–2908. Bibcode:1997GeoRL..24.2905L. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.683.8827. doi:10.1029/97GL52843. PMID 11542268. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 December 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2008.
^ Rybicki, K. R.; Denis, C. (2001). "On the Final Destiny of the Earth and the Solar System". Icarus. 151 (1): 130–137. Bibcode:2001Icar..151..130R. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6591.
^ Balick, Bruce. "Planetary Nebulae and the Future of the Solar System". University of Washington. Archived from the original on 19 December 2008. Retrieved 23 June 2006.
^ Kalirai, Jasonjot S.; et al. (March 2008). "The Initial-Final Mass Relation: Direct Constraints at the Low-Mass End". The Astrophysical Journal. 676 (1): 594–609. arXiv:0706.3894. Bibcode:2008ApJ...676..594K. doi:10.1086/527028. S2CID 10729246.
^ Kalirai et al. 2008, p. 16. Based upon the weighted least-squares best fit with the initial mass equal to a solar mass.
^ "Universe May End in a Big Rip". CERN Courier. 1 May 2003. Archived from the original on 24 October 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
^ "Ask Ethan: Could The Universe Be Torn Apart In A Big Rip?". Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
^ Caldwell, Robert R.; Kamionkowski, Marc; Weinberg, Nevin N. (2003). "Phantom Energy and Cosmic Doomsday". Physical Review Letters. 91 (7): 071301. arXiv:astro-ph/0302506. Bibcode:2003PhRvL..91g1301C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.91.071301. PMID 12935004.
^ Vikhlinin, A.; Kravtsov, A.V.; Burenin, R.A.; et al. (2009). "Chandra Cluster Cosmology Project III: Cosmological Parameter Constraints". The Astrophysical Journal. 692 (2): 1060–1074. arXiv:0812.2720. Bibcode:2009ApJ...692.1060V. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/692/2/1060.
^ Murray, C.D. & Dermott, S.F. (1999). Solar System Dynamics. Cambridge University Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-521-57295-8. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2016.
^ Dickinson, Terence (1993). From the Big Bang to Planet X. Camden East, Ontario: Camden House. pp. 79–81. ISBN 978-0-921820-71-0.
^ Canup, Robin M.; Righter, Kevin (2000). Origin of the Earth and Moon. The University of Arizona space science series. 30. University of Arizona Press. pp. 176–177. ISBN 978-0-8165-2073-2. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2016.
^ Dorminey, Bruce (31 January 2017). "Earth and Moon May Be on Long-Term Collision Course". Forbes. Archived from the original on 1 February 2017. Retrieved 11 February 2017.
^ "The Local Group of Galaxies". Students for the Exploration and Development of Space. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Loeb, Abraham (2011). "Cosmology with Hypervelocity Stars". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. Harvard University. 2011 (4): 023. arXiv:1102.0007. Bibcode:2011JCAP...04..023L. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2011/04/023. S2CID 118750775.
^ Chown, Marcus (1996). Afterglow of Creation. University Science Books. p. 210. ISBN 9780935702408.^{[ISBN missing]}
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Busha, Michael T.; Adams, Fred C.; Wechsler, Risa H.; Evrard, August E. (20 October 2003). "Future Evolution of Structure in an Accelerating Universe". The Astrophysical Journal. 596 (2): 713–724. arXiv:astro-ph/0305211. doi:10.1086/378043. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 15764445.
^ Adams, F. C.; Graves, G. J. M.; Laughlin, G. (December 2004). García-Segura, G.; Tenorio-Tagle, G.; Franco, J.; Yorke, H. W. (eds.). "Gravitational Collapse: From Massive Stars to Planets. / First Astrophysics meeting of the Observatorio Astronomico Nacional. / A meeting to celebrate Peter Bodenheimer for his outstanding contributions to Astrophysics: Red Dwarfs and the End of the Main Sequence". Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica, Serie de Conferencias. 22: 46–49. Bibcode:2004RMxAC..22...46A. See Fig. 3.
^ Krauss, Lawrence M.; Starkman, Glenn D. (March 2000). "Life, The Universe, and Nothing: Life and Death in an Ever-Expanding Universe". The Astrophysical Journal. 531 (1): 22–30. arXiv:astro-ph/9902189. Bibcode:2000ApJ...531...22K. doi:10.1086/308434. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 18442980.
^ Fred C. Adams; Gregory Laughlin; Genevieve J. M. Graves (2004). "RED Dwarfs and the End of The Main Sequence" (PDF). Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica, Serie de Conferencias. 22: 46–49. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 December 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
^ Loeb, Abraham; Batista, Rafael; Sloan, W. (2016). "Relative Likelihood for Life as a Function of Cosmic Time". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 2016 (8): 040. arXiv:1606.08448. Bibcode:2016JCAP...08..040L. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2016/08/040. S2CID 118489638.
^ "Why the Smallest Stars Stay Small". Sky & Telescope (22). November 1997.
^ Adams, F. C.; P. Bodenheimer; G. Laughlin (2005). "M dwarfs: planet formation and long term evolution". Astronomische Nachrichten. 326 (10): 913–919. Bibcode:2005AN....326..913A. doi:10.1002/asna.200510440.
^ Tayler, Roger John (1993). Galaxies, Structure and Evolution (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0521367103.
^ Barrow, John D.; Tipler, Frank J. (19 May 1988). The Anthropic Cosmological Principle. foreword by John A. Wheeler. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192821478. LC 87-28148. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2016.
^ Adams, Fred; Laughlin, Greg (1999). The Five Ages of the Universe. New York: The Free Press. pp. 85–87. ISBN 978-0684854229.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Dyson, Freeman J. (1979). "Time Without End: Physics and Biology in an Open Universe". Reviews of Modern Physics. 51 (3): 447–460. Bibcode:1979RvMP...51..447D. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.51.447. Archived from the original on 5 July 2008. Retrieved 5 July 2008.
^ John Baez (7 February 2016). "The End of the Universe". math.ucr.edu. Archived from the original on 30 May 2009. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
^ Nishino H, et al. (Super-K Collaboration) (2009). "Search for Proton Decay via
p⁺
→
e⁺

π⁰
and
p⁺
→
μ⁺

π⁰
in a Large Water Cherenkov Detector". Physical Review Letters. 102 (14): 141801. arXiv:0903.0676. Bibcode:2009PhRvL.102n1801N. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.141801. PMID 19392425. S2CID 32385768.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Tyson, Neil de Grasse; Tsun-Chu Liu, Charles; Irion, Robert (2000). One Universe: At Home in the Cosmos. Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 978-0309064880.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Page, Don N. (1976). "Particle Emission Rates from a Black Hole: Massless Particles from an Uncharged, Nonrotating Hole". Physical Review D. 13 (2): 198–206. Bibcode:1976PhRvD..13..198P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.13.198. See in particular equation (27).
^ Frautschi, S (1982). "Entropy in an expanding universe". Science. 217 (4560): 593–599. Bibcode:1982Sci...217..593F. doi:10.1126/science.217.4560.593. PMID 17817517. S2CID 27717447. p. 596: table 1 and section "black hole decay" and previous sentence on that page: "Since we have assumed a maximum scale of gravitational binding – for instance, superclusters of galaxies – black hole formation eventually comes to an end in our model, with masses of up to 10¹⁴M_☉ ... the timescale for black holes to radiate away all their energy ranges ... to 10¹⁰⁶ years for black holes of up to 10¹⁴M_☉"
^ Andreassen, Anders; Frost, William; Schwartz, Matthew D. (12 March 2018). "Scale-invariant instantons and the complete lifetime of the standard model". Physical Review D. 97 (5): 056006. arXiv:1707.08124. Bibcode:2018PhRvD..97e6006A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.97.056006. S2CID 118843387.
^ M. E. Caplan (7 August 2020). "Black Dwarf Supernova in the Far Future" (PDF). MNRAS. 000 (1–6): 4357–4362. arXiv:2008.02296. Bibcode:2020MNRAS.497.4357C. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2262. S2CID 221005728. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 June 2021. Retrieved 30 August 2020.
^ Carroll, Sean M.; Chen, Jennifer (27 October 2004). "Spontaneous Inflation and the Origin of the Arrow of Time". arXiv:hep-th/0410270.
^ Tegmark, M (7 February 2003). "Parallel universes. Not just a staple of science fiction, other universes are a direct implication of cosmological observations". Sci. Am. 288 (5): 40–51. arXiv:astro-ph/0302131. Bibcode:2003SciAm.288e..40T. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40. PMID 12701329.
^ Max Tegmark (7 February 2003). "Parallel Universes". In "Science and Ultimate Reality: From Quantum to Cosmos", Honoring John Wheeler's 90th Birthday. J. D. Barrow, P.C.W. Davies, & C.L. Harper Eds. 288 (5): 40–51. arXiv:astro-ph/0302131. Bibcode:2003SciAm.288e..40T. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40. PMID 12701329.
^ M. Douglas (21 March 2003). "The statistics of string / M theory vacua". JHEP. 0305 (46): 046. arXiv:hep-th/0303194. Bibcode:2003JHEP...05..046D. doi:10.1088/1126-6708/2003/05/046. S2CID 650509.
^ S. Ashok; M. Douglas (4 July 2003). "Counting flux vacua". JHEP. 0401 (60): 060. arXiv:hep-th/0307049. Bibcode:2004JHEP...01..060A. doi:10.1088/1126-6708/2004/01/060. S2CID 1969475.
^ Smith, Cameron; Davies, Evan T. (2012). Emigrating Beyond Earth: Human Adaptation and Space Colonization. Springer. p. 258.^{[ISBN missing]}
^ Klein, Jan; Takahata, Naoyuki (2002). Where Do We Come From?: The Molecular Evidence for Human Descent. Springer. p. 395.^{[ISBN missing]}
^ Carter, Brandon; McCrea, W. H. (1983). "The anthropic principle and its implications for biological evolution". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. A310 (1512): 347–363. Bibcode:1983RSPTA.310..347C. doi:10.1098/rsta.1983.0096. S2CID 92330878.
^ Greenberg, Joseph (1987). Language in the Americas. Stanford University Press. pp. 341–342.^{[ISBN missing]}
^ McKay, Christopher P.; Toon, Owen B.; Kasting, James F. (8 August 1991). "Making Mars habitable". Nature. 352 (6335): 489–496. Bibcode:1991Natur.352..489M. doi:10.1038/352489a0. PMID 11538095. S2CID 2815367. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
^ Kaku, Michio (2010). "The Physics of Interstellar Travel: To one day, reach the stars". mkaku.org. Archived from the original on 10 February 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
^ Avise, John; D. Walker; G. C. Johns (22 September 1998). "Speciation durations and Pleistocene effects on vertebrate phylogeography". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 265 (1407): 1707–1712. doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0492. PMC 1689361. PMID 9787467.
^ Valentine, James W. (1985). "The Origins of Evolutionary Novelty And Galactic Colonization". In Finney, Ben R.; Jones, Eric M. (eds.). Interstellar Migration and the Human Experience. University of California Press. p. 274.^{[ISBN missing]}
^ J. Richard Gott, III (1993). "Implications of the Copernican principle for our future prospects". Nature. 363 (6427): 315–319. Bibcode:1993Natur.363..315G. doi:10.1038/363315a0. S2CID 4252750.
^ Bignami, Giovanni F.; Sommariva, Andrea (2013). A Scenario for Interstellar Exploration and Its Financing. Springer. p. 23. Bibcode:2013sief.book.....B. ISBN 9788847053373.^{[ISBN missing]}
^ Korycansky, D. G.; Laughlin, Gregory; Adams, Fred C. (2001). "Astronomical engineering: a strategy for modifying planetary orbits". Astrophysics and Space Science. 275 (4): 349–366. arXiv:astro-ph/0102126. Bibcode:2001Ap&SS.275..349K. doi:10.1023/A:1002790227314. hdl:2027.42/41972. S2CID 5550304. Astrophys.Space Sci.275:349-366,2001.
^ Korycansky, D. G. (2004). "Astroengineering, or how to save the Earth in only one billion years" (PDF). Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica. 22: 117–120. Bibcode:2004RMxAC..22..117K. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 7 September 2014.
^ "Hurtling Through the Void". Time. 20 June 1983. Archived from the original on 22 December 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
^ Staub, D.W. (25 March 1967). SNAP 10 Summary Report. Atomics International Division of North American Aviation, Inc., Canoga Park, California. NAA-SR-12073.
^ "U.S. ADMISSION: Satellite mishap released rays". The Canberra Times. 52 (15, 547). Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 30 March 1978. p. 5. Archived from the original on 21 August 2021. Retrieved 12 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia., "Launched in 1965 and carrying about 4.5 kilograms of uranium 235, Snap 10A is in a 1,000-year orbit ..."
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ Bailer-Jones, Coryn A. L.; Farnocchia, Davide (3 April 2019). "Future stellar flybys of the Voyager and Pioneer spacecraft". Research Notes of the American Astronomical Society. 3 (59): 59. arXiv:1912.03503. Bibcode:2019RNAAS...3...59B. doi:10.3847/2515-5172/ab158e. S2CID 134524048.
^ "Cornell News: "It's the 25th Anniversary of Earth's First (and only) Attempt to Phone E.T."". Cornell University. 12 November 1999. Archived from the original on 2 August 2008. Retrieved 29 March 2008.
^ Deamer, Dave. "In regard to the email from". Science 2.0. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
^ "KEO FAQ". keo.org. Archived from the original on 8 January 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2011.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b "The Pioneer Missions". NASA. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
^ Lasher, Lawrence. "Pioneer Mission Status". NASA. Archived from the original on 8 April 2000. [Pioneer's speed is] about 12 km/s... [the plate etching] should survive recognizable at least to a distance ≈10 parsecs, and most probably to 100 parsecs.
^ "LAGEOS 1, 2". NASA. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
^ Jad Abumrad and Robert Krulwich (12 February 2010). Carl Sagan And Ann Druyan's Ultimate Mix Tape (Radio). NPR.
^ Conception Archived 19 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Official Zeitpyramide website. Retrieved 14 December 2010.
^ Linder, Courtney (15 November 2019). "Microsoft is Storing Source Code in an Arctic Cave". Popular Mechanics. Archived from the original on 16 March 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
^ The Book of Record of the Time Capsule of Cupaloy. New York City: Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company. 1938. p. 6.
^ "Time Capsule Expo 1970". panasonic.net. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
^ "1970 Time Capsule Dug Up". web-japan.org. April 2000. Archived from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
^ "The New Georgia Encyclopedia – Crypt of Civilization". Archived from the original on 10 February 2021. Retrieved 29 June 2008.
^ "History of the Crypt of Civilization". Archived from the original on 2 October 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
^ "The Long Now Foundation". The Long Now Foundation. 2011. Archived from the original on 16 June 2021. Retrieved 21 September 2011.
^ "A Visit to the Doomsday Vault". CBS News. 20 March 2008. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
^ Focus, Forensic (6 April 2013). "Interpretation of NTFS Timestamps". Forensic Focus. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2021.
^ "Date - JavaScript". developer.mozilla.org. Mozilla. Archived from the original on 21 July 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
^ "Memory of Mankind". Archived from the original on 16 July 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2019.
^ "Human Document Project 2014". Archived from the original on 19 May 2014. Retrieved 19 May 2014.
^ "When will System.currentTimeMillis() overflow?". Stack Overflow. Archived from the original on 21 August 2021. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
^ Begtrup, G. E.; Gannett, W.; Yuzvinsky, T. D.; Crespi, V. H.; et al. (13 May 2009). "Nanoscale Reversible Mass Transport for Archival Memory" (PDF). Nano Letters. 9 (5): 1835–1838. Bibcode:2009NanoL...9.1835B. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.534.8855. doi:10.1021/nl803800c. PMID 19400579. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 June 2010.
^ "Date/Time Conversion Contract Language" (PDF). Office of Information Technology Services, New York (state). 19 May 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 April 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
^ Zhang, J.; Gecevičius, M.; Beresna, M.; Kazansky, P. G. (2014). "Seemingly unlimited lifetime data storage in nanostructured glass". Phys. Rev. Lett. 112 (3): 033901. Bibcode:2014PhRvL.112c3901Z. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.033901. PMID 24484138. Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2018.
^ Zhang, J.; Gecevičius, M.; Beresna, M.; Kazansky, P. G. (June 2013). "5D Data Storage by Ultrafast Laser Nanostructuring in Glass" (PDF). CLEO: Science and Innovations: CTh5D–9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 September 2014.
^ Artaxo, Paulo; Berntsen, Terje; Betts, Richard; Fahey, David W.; Haywood, James; Lean, Judith; Lowe, David C.; Myhre, Gunnar; Nganga, John; Prinn, Ronald; Raga, Graciela; Schulz, Michael; van Dorland, Robert (February 2018). "Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing" (PDF). International Panel on Climate Change. p. 212. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 February 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
^ "Time it takes for garbage to decompose in the environment" (PDF). New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 June 2014. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
^ Lyle, Paul (2010). Between Rocks And Hard Places: Discovering Ireland's Northern Landscapes. Geological Survey of Northern Ireland.^{[ISBN missing]}
^ Weisman, Alan (10 July 2007). The World Without Us. New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press. pp. 171–172. ISBN 978-0-312-34729-1. OCLC 122261590.
^ "Apollo 11 – First Footprint on the Moon". Student Features. NASA. Archived from the original on 3 April 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
^ Meadows, A. J. (2007). The Future of the Universe. Springer. pp. 81–83. ISBN 9781852339463.^{[ISBN missing]}
^ Weisman, Alan (10 July 2007). The World Without Us. New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press. p. 182. ISBN 978-0-312-34729-1. OCLC 122261590.
^ Zalasiewicz, Jan (25 September 2008). The Earth After Us: What legacy will humans leave in the rocks?. Oxford University Press., Review in Stanford Archaeology
^ "Permanent Markers Implementation Plan" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. 30 August 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2006.
^ Time: Disasters that Shook the World. New York City: Time Home Entertainment. 2012. ISBN 978-1-60320-247-3.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Fetter, Steve (March 2009). "How long will the world's uranium supplies last?". Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 41 (3): 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001.
^ Rimshaw, S. J. (1968). Hampel, C. A. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 689–693.
^ Biello, David (28 January 2009). "Spent Nuclear Fuel: A Trash Heap Deadly for 250,000 Years or a Renewable Energy Source?". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 10 July 2021. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
^ Wolfson, Richard; Dalnoki-Veress, Ferenc (2021). Nuclear Choices for the Twenty-First Century: A Citizen's Guide. MIT Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-262-36201-6. Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2021.
^ Jump up to: ^a ^b Ongena, J; G. Van Oost (2004). "Energy for future centuries – Will fusion be an inexhaustible, safe and clean energy source?" (PDF). Fusion Science and Technology. 2004. 45 (2T): 3–14. doi:10.13182/FST04-A464. S2CID 15368449. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2016. Retrieved 2 July 2016.
^ Cohen, Bernard L. (January 1983). "Breeder Reactors: A Renewable Energy Source" (PDF). American Journal of Physics. 51 (1): 75. Bibcode:1983AmJPh..51...75C. doi:10.1119/1.13440. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 February 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2017.

Bibliography[]

Adams, Fred C. (2008). "Long term astrophysical processes". In Bostrom, Nick; Ćirković, Milan M. (eds.). Global catastrophic risks. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-857050-9.
Brownlee, Donald E. (2010). "Planetary habitability on astronomical time scales". In Schrijver, Carolus J.; Siscoe, George L. (eds.). Heliophysics: Evolving Solar Activity and the Climates of Space and Earth. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-11294-9.

[prob-10] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m This represents the time by which the event will most probably have happened. It may occur randomly at any time from the present.

[shortscale-77] Units are short scale.

[earthredgiantsun-107] This has been a tricky question for quite a while; see the 2001 paper by Rybicki, K. R. and Denis, C. However, according to the latest calculations, this happens with a very high degree of certainty.

[half-life-139] Jump up to: ^a ^b Around 264 half-lives. Tyson et al. employ the computation with a different value for half-life.

[bignumber-144] $10^{10^{26}}$ is 1 followed by 10²⁶ (100 septillion) zeroes

[bignumber2-145] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Although listed in years for convenience, the numbers beyond this point are so vast that their digits would remain unchanged regardless of which conventional units they were listed in, be they nanoseconds or star lifespans.

[146] $10^{10^{50}}$ is 1 followed by 10⁵⁰ (100 quindecillion) zeroes

[1] Rescher, Nicholas (1998). Predicting the future: An introduction to the theory of forecasting. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0791435533.

[urlcds.cern.ch-2] "cds.cern.ch" (PDF). Archived from the original on 21 August 2021.

[Nave-3] Nave, C.R. "Second Law of Thermodynamics". Georgia State University. Archived from the original on 13 May 2012. Retrieved 3 December 2011.

[five_ages-4] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Adams, Fred; Laughlin, Greg (1999). The Five Ages of the Universe. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 978-0684854229.

[dying-5] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Adams, Fred C.; Laughlin, Gregory (1997). "A dying universe: the long-term fate and evolution of astrophysical objects". Reviews of Modern Physics. 69 (2): 337–372. arXiv:astro-ph/9701131. Bibcode:1997RvMP...69..337A. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.69.337. S2CID 12173790.

[Komatsu-6] Komatsu, E.; Smith, K. M.; Dunkley, J.; et al. (2011). "Seven-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Cosmological Interpretation". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 192 (2): 18. arXiv:1001.4731. Bibcode:2011ApJS..192...19W. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/192/2/18. S2CID 17581520.

[linde-7] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Linde, Andrei (2007). "Sinks in the Landscape, Boltzmann Brains and the Cosmological Constant Problem". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 2007 (1): 022. arXiv:hep-th/0611043. Bibcode:2007JCAP...01..022L. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.266.8334. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2007/01/022. S2CID 16984680.

[arxiv1106_3141-8] Jump up to: ^a ^b Finkleman, David; Allen, Steve; Seago, John; Seaman, Rob; Seidelmann, P. Kenneth (June 2011). "The Future of Time: UTC and the Leap Second". American Scientist. 99 (4): 312. arXiv:1106.3141. Bibcode:2011arXiv1106.3141F. doi:10.1511/2011.91.312. S2CID 118403321.

[9] Mengel, M.; Levermann, A. (4 May 2014). "Ice plug prevents irreversible discharge from East Antarctica". Nature Climate Change. 4 (6): 451–455. Bibcode:2014NatCC...4..451M. doi:10.1038/nclimate2226.

[hockey-11] Hockey, T.; Trimble, V. (2010). "Public reaction to a V = −12.5 supernova". The Observatory. 130 (3): 167. Bibcode:2010Obs...130..167H.

[plait-12] Plait, Phil (2002). Bad Astronomy: Misconceptions and Misuses Revealed, from Astrology to the Moon Landing "Hoax". John Wiley and Sons. pp. 55–56.^{[ISBN missing]}

[tropicalsahara1-13] Mowat, Laura (14 July 2017). "Africa's desert to become lush green tropics as monsoons MOVE to Sahara, scientists say". Daily Express. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 23 March 2018.

[tropicalsahara2-14] "Orbit: Earth's Extraordinary Journey". ExptU. 23 December 2015. Archived from the original on 14 July 2018. Retrieved 23 March 2018.

[15] "'Super-eruption' timing gets an update – and not in humanity's favour". Nature. 30 November 2017. p. 8. doi:10.1038/d41586-017-07777-6. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 28 August 2020.

[16] "Scientists predict a volcanic eruption that would destroy humanity could happen sooner than previously thought". The Independent. Archived from the original on 9 November 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2020.

[17] Schorghofer, Norbert (23 September 2008). "Temperature response of Mars to Milankovitch cycles". Geophysical Research Letters. 35 (18): L18201. Bibcode:2008GeoRL..3518201S. doi:10.1029/2008GL034954.

[18] Beech, Martin (2009). Terraforming: The Creating of Habitable Worlds. Springer. pp. 138–142. Bibcode:2009tchw.book.....B.

[Matthews1993-19] Jump up to: ^a ^b Matthews, R. A. J. (Spring 1994). "The Close Approach of Stars in the Solar Neighborhood". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 35 (1): 1. Bibcode:1994QJRAS..35....1M.

[Berger2002-20] Berger, A & Loutre, MF (2002). "Climate: an exceptionally long interglacial ahead?". Science. 297 (5585): 1287–1288. doi:10.1126/science.1076120. PMID 12193773. S2CID 128923481.

[21] "Human-made climate change suppresses the next ice age – Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research". pik-potsdam.de. Archived from the original on 7 January 2021. Retrieved 21 October 2020.

[Niagara_Parks-22] "Niagara Falls Geology Facts & Figures". Niagara Parks. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2011.

[23] Bastedo, Jamie (1994). Shield Country: The Life and Times of the Oldest Piece of the Planet. Komatik Series, ISSN 0840-4488. 4. Arctic Institute of North America of the University of Calgary. p. 202. ISBN 9780919034792. Archived from the original on 3 November 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.

[Tapping_2005-24] Tapping, Ken (2005). "The Unfixed Stars". National Research Council Canada. Archived from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 29 December 2010.

[Monnier_Tuthill_Lopez_1999-25] Monnier, J. D.; Tuthill, P.; Lopez, GB; et al. (1999). "The Last Gasps of VY Canis Majoris: Aperture Synthesis and Adaptive Optics Imagery". The Astrophysical Journal. 512 (1): 351–361. arXiv:astro-ph/9810024. Bibcode:1999ApJ...512..351M. doi:10.1086/306761. S2CID 16672180.

[26] Schaetzl, Randall J.; Anderson, Sharon (2005). Soils: Genesis and Geomorphology. Cambridge University Press. p. 105. ISBN 9781139443463.

[27] David Archer (2009). The Long Thaw: How Humans Are Changing the Next 100,000 Years of Earth's Climate. Princeton University Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-691-13654-7.

[havo-28] "Frequently Asked Questions". Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park. 2011. Archived from the original on 26 October 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2011.

[29] Tuthill, Peter; Monnier, John; Lawrance, Nicholas; Danchi, William; Owocki, Stan; Gayley, Kenneth (2008). "The Prototype Colliding-Wind Pinwheel WR 104". The Astrophysical Journal. 675 (1): 698–710. arXiv:0712.2111. Bibcode:2008ApJ...675..698T. doi:10.1086/527286. S2CID 119293391.

[30] Tuthill, Peter. "WR 104: Technical Questions". Archived from the original on 3 April 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2015.

[Bostrom_2002-31] Bostrom, Nick (March 2002). "Existential Risks: Analyzing Human Extinction Scenarios and Related Hazards". Journal of Evolution and Technology. 9 (1). Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2012.

[32] "Badlands National Park – Nature & Science – Geologic Formations". Archived from the original on 15 February 2015. Retrieved 21 May 2014.

[33] Landstreet, John D. (2003). Physical Processes in the Solar System: An introduction to the physics of asteroids, comets, moons and planets. Keenan & Darlington. p. 121. ISBN 9780973205107. Archived from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.

[betel-34] Sessions, Larry (29 July 2009). "Betelgeuse will explode someday". EarthSky Communications, Inc. Archived from the original on 23 May 2021. Retrieved 16 November 2010.

[35] "A giant star is acting strange, and astronomers are buzzing". National Geographic. 26 December 2019. Archived from the original on 8 January 2021. Retrieved 15 March 2020.

[Uranus-36] Jump up to: ^a ^b "Uranus's colliding moons". astronomy.com. 2017. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 23 September 2017.

[Bailer2018-37] Bailer-Jones, C.A.L.; Rybizki, J; Andrae, R.; Fouesnea, M. (2018). "New stellar encounters discovered in the second Gaia data release". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 616: A37. arXiv:1805.07581. Bibcode:2018A&A...616A..37B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201833456. S2CID 56269929.

[gliese-38] Filip Berski; Piotr A. Dybczyński (25 October 2016). "Gliese 710 will pass the Sun even closer". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 595 (L10): L10. Bibcode:2016A&A...595L..10B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629835.

[39] Goldstein, Natalie (2009). Global Warming. Infobase Publishing. p. 53. ISBN 9780816067695. Archived from the original on 7 November 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020. The last time acidification on this scale occurred (about 65 mya) it took more than 2 million years for corals and other marine organisms to recover; some scientists today believe, optimistically, that it could take tens of thousands of years for the ocean to regain the chemistry it had in preindustrial times.

[40] "Grand Canyon – Geology – A dynamic place". Views of the National Parks. National Park Service. Archived from the original on 25 April 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.

[Horner2004a-41] Horner, J.; Evans, N.W.; Bailey, M. E. (2004). "Simulations of the Population of Centaurs I: The Bulk Statistics". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 354 (3): 798–810. arXiv:astro-ph/0407400. Bibcode:2004MNRAS.354..798H. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.08240.x. S2CID 16002759.

[42] Jillian Scudder. "How Long Until The Moon Slows The Earth to a 25 Hour Day?". Forbes. Archived from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2017.

[rift-43] Haddok, Eitan (29 September 2008). "Birth of an Ocean: The Evolution of Ethiopia's Afar Depression". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 27 December 2010.

[44] Bilham, Roger (November 2000). "NOVA Online | Everest | Birth of the Himalaya". www.pbs.org. Archived from the original on 19 June 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2021.

[45] Kirchner, James W.; Weil, Anne (9 March 2000). "Delayed biological recovery from extinctions throughout the fossil record". Nature. 404 (6774): 177–180. Bibcode:2000Natur.404..177K. doi:10.1038/35004564. PMID 10724168. S2CID 4428714.

[46] Wilson, Edward O. (1999). The Diversity of Life. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 216. ISBN 9780393319408. Archived from the original on 4 October 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.

[47] Wilson, Edward Osborne (1992). "The Human Impact". The Diversity of Life. London: Penguin UK (published 2001). ISBN 9780141931739. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.

[Bills-48] Bills, Bruce G.; Gregory A. Neumann; David E. Smith; Maria T. Zuber (2005). "Improved estimate of tidal dissipation within Mars from MOLA observations of the shadow of Phobos". Journal of Geophysical Research. 110 (E7). E07004. Bibcode:2005JGRE..110.7004B. doi:10.1029/2004je002376.

[scotese-49] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Scotese, Christopher R. "Pangea Ultima will form 250 million years in the Future". Paleomap Project. Archived from the original on 25 February 2019. Retrieved 13 March 2006.

[trench-50] Garrison, Tom (2009). Essentials of Oceanography (5th ed.). Brooks/Cole. p. 62.^{[ISBN missing]}

[medi-51] "Continents in Collision: Pangea Ultima". NASA. 2000. Archived from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 29 December 2010.

[52] "Geology". Encyclopedia of Appalachia. University of Tennessee Press. 2011. Archived from the original on 21 May 2014. Retrieved 21 May 2014.

[53] Hancock, Gregory; Kirwan, Matthew (January 2007). "Summit erosion rates deduced from 10Be: Implications for relief production in the central Appalachians" (PDF). Geology. 35 (1): 89. Bibcode:2007Geo....35...89H. doi:10.1130/g23147a.1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 December 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2014.

[54] Yorath, C. J. (2017). Of rocks, mountains and Jasper: a visitor's guide to the geology of Jasper National Park. Dundurn Press. p. 30. ISBN 9781459736122. [...] 'How long will the Rockies last?' [...] The numbers suggest that in about 50 to 60 million years the remaining mountains will be gone, and the park will be reduced to a rolling plain much like the Canadian prairies.

[55] Dethier, David P.; Ouimet, W.; Bierman, P. R.; Rood, D. H.; et al. (2014). "Basins and bedrock: Spatial variation in 10Be erosion rates and increasing relief in the southern Rocky Mountains, USA" (PDF). Geology. 42 (2): 167–170. Bibcode:2014Geo....42..167D. doi:10.1130/G34922.1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 December 2018. Retrieved 22 May 2014.

[56] Patzek, Tad W. (2008). "Can the Earth Deliver the Biomass-for-Fuel we Demand?". In Pimentel, David (ed.). Biofuels, Solar and Wind as Renewable Energy Systems: Benefits and Risks. Springer. ISBN 9781402086533. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 15 March 2020.

[57] Perlman, David (14 October 2006). "Kiss that Hawaiian timeshare goodbye / Islands will sink in 80 million years". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2014.

[kpg1-58] Nelson, Stephen A. "Meteorites, Impacts, and Mass Extinction". Tulane University. Archived from the original on 6 August 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2011.

[59] Lang, Kenneth R. (2003). The Cambridge Guide to the Solar System. Cambridge University Press. p. 329. ISBN 9780521813068. [...] all the rings should collapse [...] in about 100 million years.

[60] Schröder, K.-P.; Connon Smith, Robert (2008). "Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386 (1): 155–63. arXiv:0801.4031. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..155S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x. S2CID 10073988.

[61] Jillian Scudder. "How Long Until The Moon Slows The Earth to a 25 Hour Day?". Forbes. Archived from the original on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2017.

[hayes07-62] Hayes, Wayne B. (2007). "Is the Outer Solar System Chaotic?". Nature Physics. 3 (10): 689–691. arXiv:astro-ph/0702179. Bibcode:2007NatPh...3..689H. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.337.7948. doi:10.1038/nphys728. S2CID 18705038.

[galyear-63] Leong, Stacy (2002). "Period of the Sun's Orbit Around the Galaxy (Cosmic Year)". The Physics Factbook. Archived from the original on 22 August 2011. Retrieved 2 April 2007.

[Williams_Nield_2007-64] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Williams, Caroline; Nield, Ted (20 October 2007). "Pangaea, the comeback". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 13 April 2008. Retrieved 2 January 2014.

[65] Calkin, P. E.; Young, G. M. (1996), "Global glaciation chronologies and causes of glaciation", in Menzies, John (ed.), Past glacial environments: sediments, forms, and techniques, Glacial environments, 2, Butterworth-Heinemann, pp. 9–75, ISBN 978-0-7506-2352-0.

[PerryRussel1997-66] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Perry, Perry; Russel, Thompson (1997). Applied climatology : principles and practice. London: Routledge. p. 127–128. ISBN 9780415141000.

[swansong2-67] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e O'Malley-James, Jack T.; Greaves, Jane S.; Raven, John A.; Cockell, Charles S. (2014). "Swansong Biosphere II: The final signs of life on terrestrial planets near the end of their habitable lifetimes". International Journal of Astrobiology. 13 (3): 229–243. arXiv:1310.4841. Bibcode:2014IJAsB..13..229O. doi:10.1017/S1473550413000426. S2CID 119252386.

[Strom1994-68] Strom, Robert G.; Schaber, Gerald G.; Dawson, Douglas D. (25 May 1994). "The global resurfacing of Venus". Journal of Geophysical Research. 99 (E5): 10899–10926. Bibcode:1994JGR....9910899S. doi:10.1029/94JE00388. Archived from the original on 16 September 2020. Retrieved 6 September 2018.

[FOOTNOTENield200720–21-69] Nield 2007, pp. 20–21.

[70] Hoffman, Paul F. (November 1992). "Rodinia to Gondwanaland to Pangea to Amasia: alternating kinematics of supercontinental fusion". Atlantic Geology. 28 (3): 323–327.

[natgeo-71] Minard, Anne (2009). "Gamma-Ray Burst Caused Mass Extinction?". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 5 July 2015. Retrieved 27 August 2012.

[600mil-72] "Questions Frequently Asked by the Public About Eclipses". NASA. Archived from the original on 12 March 2010. Retrieved 7 March 2010.

[swansong-73] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d O'Malley-James, Jack T.; Greaves, Jane S.; Raven, John A.; Cockell, Charles S. (2012). "Swansong Biospheres: Refuges for life and novel microbial biospheres on terrestrial planets near the end of their habitable lifetimes". International Journal of Astrobiology. 12 (2): 99–112. arXiv:1210.5721. Bibcode:2013IJAsB..12...99O. doi:10.1017/S147355041200047X. S2CID 73722450.

[Heath_Doyle_2009-74] Jump up to: ^a ^b Heath, Martin J.; Doyle, Laurance R. (2009). "Circumstellar Habitable Zones to Ecodynamic Domains: A Preliminary Review and Suggested Future Directions". arXiv:0912.2482 [astro-ph.EP].

[WardBrownlee2003-75] Jump up to: ^a ^b Ward, Peter D.; Brownlee, Donald (2003). Rare earth : why complex life is uncommon in the universe. New York: Copernicus. p. 117-128. ISBN 978-0387952895.

[bd2_6_1665-76] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Franck, S.; Bounama, C.; Von Bloh, W. (November 2005). "Causes and timing of future biosphere extinction" (PDF). Biogeosciences Discussions. 2 (6): 1665–1679. Bibcode:2005BGD.....2.1665F. doi:10.5194/bgd-2-1665-2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 2 September 2019.

[hess5_4_569-78] Bounama, Christine; Franck, S.; Von Bloh, David (2001). "The fate of Earth's ocean". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 5 (4): 569–575. Bibcode:2001HESS....5..569B. doi:10.5194/hess-5-569-2001.

[mnras386_1-79] Jump up to: ^a ^b Schröder, K.-P.; Connon Smith, Robert (1 May 2008). "Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386 (1): 155–163. arXiv:0801.4031. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..155S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x. S2CID 10073988.

[FOOTNOTEBrownlee201095-80] Jump up to: ^a ^b Brownlee 2010, p. 95.

[FOOTNOTEBrownlee2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidM8NwTYEl0ngCpgPA79_79]-81] Brownlee 2010, p. 79.

[pressure-82] Li King-Fai; Pahlevan, Kaveh; Kirschvink, Joseph L.; Yung, Luk L. (2009). "Atmospheric pressure as a natural climate regulator for a terrestrial planet with a biosphere". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (24): 9576–9579. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.9576L. doi:10.1073/pnas.0809436106. PMC 2701016. PMID 19487662.

[nature-83] Caldeira, Ken; Kasting, James F. (1992). "The life span of the biosphere revisited". Nature. 360 (6406): 721–23. Bibcode:1992Natur.360..721C. doi:10.1038/360721a0. PMID 11536510. S2CID 4360963.

[tellus_b_52_1-84] Franck, S. (2000). "Reduction of biosphere life span as a consequence of geodynamics". Tellus B. 52 (1): 94–107. Bibcode:2000TellB..52...94F. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0889.2000.00898.x.

[grl28_9-85] Lenton, Timothy M.; von Bloh, Werner (2001). "Biotic feedback extends the life span of the biosphere". Geophysical Research Letters. 28 (9): 1715–1718. Bibcode:2001GeoRL..28.1715L. doi:10.1029/2000GL012198.

[mars-86] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Kargel, Jeffrey Stuart (2004). Mars: A Warmer, Wetter Planet. Springer. p. 509. ISBN 978-1852335687. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 29 October 2007.

[wander-87] Neron de Surgey, O.; Laskar, J. (1996). "On the Long Term Evolution of the Spin of the Earth". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 318: 975. Bibcode:1997A&A...318..975N.

[cox-88] Jump up to: ^a ^b Cox, J. T.; Loeb, Abraham (2007). "The Collision Between The Milky Way And Andromeda". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386 (1): 461–474. arXiv:0705.1170. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..461C. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13048.x. S2CID 14964036.

[pnas106_24-89] Jump up to: ^a ^b Li, King-Fai; Pahlevan, Kaveh; Kirschvink, Joseph L.; Yung, Yuk L. (16 June 2009). "Atmospheric pressure as a natural climate regulator for a terrestrial planet with a biosphere". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (24): 9576–9579. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.9576L. doi:10.1073/pnas.0809436106. PMC 2701016. PMID 19487662.

[ng4_264-90] Waszek, Lauren; Irving, Jessica; Deuss, Arwen (20 February 2011). "Reconciling the Hemispherical Structure of Earth's Inner Core With its Super-Rotation". Nature Geoscience. 4 (4): 264–267. Bibcode:2011NatGe...4..264W. doi:10.1038/ngeo1083.

[compo-91] McDonough, W. F. (2004). "Compositional Model for the Earth's Core". Treatise on Geochemistry. 2. pp. 547–568. Bibcode:2003TrGeo...2..547M. doi:10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/02015-6. ISBN 978-0080437514.

[magnet-92] Luhmann, J. G.; Johnson, R. E.; Zhang, M. H. G. (1992). "Evolutionary impact of sputtering of the Martian atmosphere by O⁺ pickup ions". Geophysical Research Letters. 19 (21): 2151–2154. Bibcode:1992GeoRL..19.2151L. doi:10.1029/92GL02485.

[93] Quirin Shlermeler (3 March 2005). "Solar wind hammers the ozone layer". News@nature. doi:10.1038/news050228-12.

[FOOTNOTEAdams200833–47-94] Jump up to: ^a ^b Adams 2008, pp. 33–47.

[FOOTNOTEAdams200833–44-95] Adams 2008, pp. 33–44.

[chaos-96] "Study: Earth May Collide With Another Planet". Fox News Channel. 11 June 2009. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. Retrieved 8 September 2011.

[guinan_ribas-97] Guinan, E. F.; Ribas, I. (2002). Montesinos, Benjamin; Gimenez, Alvaro; Guinan, Edward F. (eds.). "Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate". ASP Conference Proceedings. 269: 85–106. Bibcode:2002ASPC..269...85G.

[icarus74-98] Kasting, J. F. (June 1988). "Runaway and moist greenhouse atmospheres and the evolution of earth and Venus". Icarus. 74 (3): 472–494. Bibcode:1988Icar...74..472K. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(88)90116-9. PMID 11538226. Archived from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2018.

[triton-99] Chyba, C. F.; Jankowski, D. G.; Nicholson, P. D. (1989). "Tidal Evolution in the Neptune-Triton System". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 219 (1–2): 23. Bibcode:1989A&A...219L..23C.

[Cain-100] Cain, Fraser (2007). "When Our Galaxy Smashes into Andromeda, What Happens to the Sun?". Universe Today. Archived from the original on 17 May 2007. Retrieved 16 May 2007.

[Cox2008-101] Cox, T. J.; Loeb, Abraham (2008). "The Collision Between The Milky Way And Andromeda". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386 (1): 461–474. arXiv:0705.1170. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..461C. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13048.x. S2CID 14964036.

[102] "NASA's Hubble Shows Milky Way is Destined for Head-On Collision". NASA. 31 May 2012. Archived from the original on 30 April 2020. Retrieved 13 October 2012.

[103] Dowd, Maureen (29 May 2012). "Andromeda Is Coming!". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 9 January 2014. [NASA's David Morrison] explained that the Andromeda-Milky Way collision would just be two great big fuzzy balls of stars and mostly empty space passing through each other harmlessly over the course of millions of years.

[milk-104] Braine, J.; Lisenfeld, U.; Duc, P. A.; et al. (2004). "Colliding molecular clouds in head-on galaxy collisions". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 418 (2): 419–428. arXiv:astro-ph/0402148. Bibcode:2004A&A...418..419B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20035732. S2CID 15928576.

[Schroder_2008-105] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Schroder, K. P.; Connon Smith, Robert (2008). "Distant Future of the Sun and Earth Revisited". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386 (1): 155–163. arXiv:0801.4031. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..155S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x. S2CID 10073988.

[106] Taylor, David. "The End Of The Sun". Archived from the original on 12 May 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2021.

[powell2007-108] Powell, David (22 January 2007). "Earth's Moon Destined to Disintegrate". Space.com. Tech Media Network. Archived from the original on 27 June 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2010.

[Titan-109] Lorenz, Ralph D.; Lunine, Jonathan I.; McKay, Christopher P. (1997). "Titan under a red giant sun: A new kind of "habitable" moon" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 24 (22): 2905–2908. Bibcode:1997GeoRL..24.2905L. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.683.8827. doi:10.1029/97GL52843. PMID 11542268. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 December 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2008.

[Rybicki2001-110] Rybicki, K. R.; Denis, C. (2001). "On the Final Destiny of the Earth and the Solar System". Icarus. 151 (1): 130–137. Bibcode:2001Icar..151..130R. doi:10.1006/icar.2001.6591.

[nebula-111] Balick, Bruce. "Planetary Nebulae and the Future of the Solar System". University of Washington. Archived from the original on 19 December 2008. Retrieved 23 June 2006.

[apj676_1_594-112] Kalirai, Jasonjot S.; et al. (March 2008). "The Initial-Final Mass Relation: Direct Constraints at the Low-Mass End". The Astrophysical Journal. 676 (1): 594–609. arXiv:0706.3894. Bibcode:2008ApJ...676..594K. doi:10.1086/527028. S2CID 10729246.

[dwarf_group_note-113] Kalirai et al. 2008, p. 16. Based upon the weighted least-squares best fit with the initial mass equal to a solar mass.

[bigrip-114] "Universe May End in a Big Rip". CERN Courier. 1 May 2003. Archived from the original on 24 October 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011.

[115] "Ask Ethan: Could The Universe Be Torn Apart In A Big Rip?". Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2021.

[116] Caldwell, Robert R.; Kamionkowski, Marc; Weinberg, Nevin N. (2003). "Phantom Energy and Cosmic Doomsday". Physical Review Letters. 91 (7): 071301. arXiv:astro-ph/0302506. Bibcode:2003PhRvL..91g1301C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.91.071301. PMID 12935004.

[chand-117] Vikhlinin, A.; Kravtsov, A.V.; Burenin, R.A.; et al. (2009). "Chandra Cluster Cosmology Project III: Cosmological Parameter Constraints". The Astrophysical Journal. 692 (2): 1060–1074. arXiv:0812.2720. Bibcode:2009ApJ...692.1060V. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/692/2/1060.

[tide1-118] Murray, C.D. & Dermott, S.F. (1999). Solar System Dynamics. Cambridge University Press. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-521-57295-8. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2016.

[tide2-119] Dickinson, Terence (1993). From the Big Bang to Planet X. Camden East, Ontario: Camden House. pp. 79–81. ISBN 978-0-921820-71-0.

[canup_righter-120] Canup, Robin M.; Righter, Kevin (2000). Origin of the Earth and Moon. The University of Arizona space science series. 30. University of Arizona Press. pp. 176–177. ISBN 978-0-8165-2073-2. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2016.

[121] Dorminey, Bruce (31 January 2017). "Earth and Moon May Be on Long-Term Collision Course". Forbes. Archived from the original on 1 February 2017. Retrieved 11 February 2017.

[messier-122] "The Local Group of Galaxies". Students for the Exploration and Development of Space. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 2 October 2009.

[galaxy-123] Jump up to: ^a ^b Loeb, Abraham (2011). "Cosmology with Hypervelocity Stars". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. Harvard University. 2011 (4): 023. arXiv:1102.0007. Bibcode:2011JCAP...04..023L. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2011/04/023. S2CID 118750775.

[temp-124] Chown, Marcus (1996). Afterglow of Creation. University Science Books. p. 210. ISBN 9780935702408.^{[ISBN missing]}

[:0-125] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c Busha, Michael T.; Adams, Fred C.; Wechsler, Risa H.; Evrard, August E. (20 October 2003). "Future Evolution of Structure in an Accelerating Universe". The Astrophysical Journal. 596 (2): 713–724. arXiv:astro-ph/0305211. doi:10.1086/378043. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 15764445.

[bluedwarf-126] Adams, F. C.; Graves, G. J. M.; Laughlin, G. (December 2004). García-Segura, G.; Tenorio-Tagle, G.; Franco, J.; Yorke, H. W. (eds.). "Gravitational Collapse: From Massive Stars to Planets. / First Astrophysics meeting of the Observatorio Astronomico Nacional. / A meeting to celebrate Peter Bodenheimer for his outstanding contributions to Astrophysics: Red Dwarfs and the End of the Main Sequence". Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica, Serie de Conferencias. 22: 46–49. Bibcode:2004RMxAC..22...46A. See Fig. 3.

[127] Krauss, Lawrence M.; Starkman, Glenn D. (March 2000). "Life, The Universe, and Nothing: Life and Death in an Ever-Expanding Universe". The Astrophysical Journal. 531 (1): 22–30. arXiv:astro-ph/9902189. Bibcode:2000ApJ...531...22K. doi:10.1086/308434. ISSN 0004-637X. S2CID 18442980.

[128] Fred C. Adams; Gregory Laughlin; Genevieve J. M. Graves (2004). "RED Dwarfs and the End of The Main Sequence" (PDF). Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica, Serie de Conferencias. 22: 46–49. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 December 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2016.

[loeb_2016-129] Loeb, Abraham; Batista, Rafael; Sloan, W. (2016). "Relative Likelihood for Life as a Function of Cosmic Time". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 2016 (8): 040. arXiv:1606.08448. Bibcode:2016JCAP...08..040L. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2016/08/040. S2CID 118489638.

[S&T_22-130] "Why the Smallest Stars Stay Small". Sky & Telescope (22). November 1997.

[131] Adams, F. C.; P. Bodenheimer; G. Laughlin (2005). "M dwarfs: planet formation and long term evolution". Astronomische Nachrichten. 326 (10): 913–919. Bibcode:2005AN....326..913A. doi:10.1002/asna.200510440.

[strip-132] Tayler, Roger John (1993). Galaxies, Structure and Evolution (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0521367103.

[five_degs-133] Barrow, John D.; Tipler, Frank J. (19 May 1988). The Anthropic Cosmological Principle. foreword by John A. Wheeler. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192821478. LC 87-28148. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2016.

[five_ages_pp85–87-134] Adams, Fred; Laughlin, Greg (1999). The Five Ages of the Universe. New York: The Free Press. pp. 85–87. ISBN 978-0684854229.

[dyson-135] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Dyson, Freeman J. (1979). "Time Without End: Physics and Biology in an Open Universe". Reviews of Modern Physics. 51 (3): 447–460. Bibcode:1979RvMP...51..447D. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.51.447. Archived from the original on 5 July 2008. Retrieved 5 July 2008.

[136] John Baez (7 February 2016). "The End of the Universe". math.ucr.edu. Archived from the original on 30 May 2009. Retrieved 13 February 2021.

[proton-137] Nishino H, et al. (Super-K Collaboration) (2009). "Search for Proton Decay via
p⁺
→
e⁺

π⁰
and
p⁺
→
μ⁺

π⁰
in a Large Water Cherenkov Detector". Physical Review Letters. 102 (14): 141801. arXiv:0903.0676. Bibcode:2009PhRvL.102n1801N. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.141801. PMID 19392425. S2CID 32385768.

[half-life-138] Jump up to: ^a ^b Tyson, Neil de Grasse; Tsun-Chu Liu, Charles; Irion, Robert (2000). One Universe: At Home in the Cosmos. Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 978-0309064880.

[Page_1976-140] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d Page, Don N. (1976). "Particle Emission Rates from a Black Hole: Massless Particles from an Uncharged, Nonrotating Hole". Physical Review D. 13 (2): 198–206. Bibcode:1976PhRvD..13..198P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.13.198. See in particular equation (27).

[141] Frautschi, S (1982). "Entropy in an expanding universe". Science. 217 (4560): 593–599. Bibcode:1982Sci...217..593F. doi:10.1126/science.217.4560.593. PMID 17817517. S2CID 27717447. p. 596: table 1 and section "black hole decay" and previous sentence on that page: "Since we have assumed a maximum scale of gravitational binding – for instance, superclusters of galaxies – black hole formation eventually comes to an end in our model, with masses of up to 10¹⁴M_☉ ... the timescale for black holes to radiate away all their energy ranges ... to 10¹⁰⁶ years for black holes of up to 10¹⁴M_☉"

[142] Andreassen, Anders; Frost, William; Schwartz, Matthew D. (12 March 2018). "Scale-invariant instantons and the complete lifetime of the standard model". Physical Review D. 97 (5): 056006. arXiv:1707.08124. Bibcode:2018PhRvD..97e6006A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.97.056006. S2CID 118843387.

[143] M. E. Caplan (7 August 2020). "Black Dwarf Supernova in the Far Future" (PDF). MNRAS. 000 (1–6): 4357–4362. arXiv:2008.02296. Bibcode:2020MNRAS.497.4357C. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2262. S2CID 221005728. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 June 2021. Retrieved 30 August 2020.

[carroll_and_chen-147] Carroll, Sean M.; Chen, Jennifer (27 October 2004). "Spontaneous Inflation and the Origin of the Arrow of Time". arXiv:hep-th/0410270.

[TegmarkPUstaple-148] Tegmark, M (7 February 2003). "Parallel universes. Not just a staple of science fiction, other universes are a direct implication of cosmological observations". Sci. Am. 288 (5): 40–51. arXiv:astro-ph/0302131. Bibcode:2003SciAm.288e..40T. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40. PMID 12701329.

[149] Max Tegmark (7 February 2003). "Parallel Universes". In "Science and Ultimate Reality: From Quantum to Cosmos", Honoring John Wheeler's 90th Birthday. J. D. Barrow, P.C.W. Davies, & C.L. Harper Eds. 288 (5): 40–51. arXiv:astro-ph/0302131. Bibcode:2003SciAm.288e..40T. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0503-40. PMID 12701329.

[150] M. Douglas (21 March 2003). "The statistics of string / M theory vacua". JHEP. 0305 (46): 046. arXiv:hep-th/0303194. Bibcode:2003JHEP...05..046D. doi:10.1088/1126-6708/2003/05/046. S2CID 650509.

[151] S. Ashok; M. Douglas (4 July 2003). "Counting flux vacua". JHEP. 0401 (60): 060. arXiv:hep-th/0307049. Bibcode:2004JHEP...01..060A. doi:10.1088/1126-6708/2004/01/060. S2CID 1969475.

[152] Smith, Cameron; Davies, Evan T. (2012). Emigrating Beyond Earth: Human Adaptation and Space Colonization. Springer. p. 258.^{[ISBN missing]}

[153] Klein, Jan; Takahata, Naoyuki (2002). Where Do We Come From?: The Molecular Evidence for Human Descent. Springer. p. 395.^{[ISBN missing]}

[brandon-154] Carter, Brandon; McCrea, W. H. (1983). "The anthropic principle and its implications for biological evolution". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. A310 (1512): 347–363. Bibcode:1983RSPTA.310..347C. doi:10.1098/rsta.1983.0096. S2CID 92330878.

[155] Greenberg, Joseph (1987). Language in the Americas. Stanford University Press. pp. 341–342.^{[ISBN missing]}

[156] McKay, Christopher P.; Toon, Owen B.; Kasting, James F. (8 August 1991). "Making Mars habitable". Nature. 352 (6335): 489–496. Bibcode:1991Natur.352..489M. doi:10.1038/352489a0. PMID 11538095. S2CID 2815367. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 23 June 2019.

[typeiii-157] Kaku, Michio (2010). "The Physics of Interstellar Travel: To one day, reach the stars". mkaku.org. Archived from the original on 10 February 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2010.

[158] Avise, John; D. Walker; G. C. Johns (22 September 1998). "Speciation durations and Pleistocene effects on vertebrate phylogeography". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 265 (1407): 1707–1712. doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0492. PMC 1689361. PMID 9787467.

[159] Valentine, James W. (1985). "The Origins of Evolutionary Novelty And Galactic Colonization". In Finney, Ben R.; Jones, Eric M. (eds.). Interstellar Migration and the Human Experience. University of California Press. p. 274.^{[ISBN missing]}

[160] J. Richard Gott, III (1993). "Implications of the Copernican principle for our future prospects". Nature. 363 (6427): 315–319. Bibcode:1993Natur.363..315G. doi:10.1038/363315a0. S2CID 4252750.

[161] Bignami, Giovanni F.; Sommariva, Andrea (2013). A Scenario for Interstellar Exploration and Its Financing. Springer. p. 23. Bibcode:2013sief.book.....B. ISBN 9788847053373.^{[ISBN missing]}

[162] Korycansky, D. G.; Laughlin, Gregory; Adams, Fred C. (2001). "Astronomical engineering: a strategy for modifying planetary orbits". Astrophysics and Space Science. 275 (4): 349–366. arXiv:astro-ph/0102126. Bibcode:2001Ap&SS.275..349K. doi:10.1023/A:1002790227314. hdl:2027.42/41972. S2CID 5550304. Astrophys.Space Sci.275:349-366,2001.

[163] Korycansky, D. G. (2004). "Astroengineering, or how to save the Earth in only one billion years" (PDF). Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica. 22: 117–120. Bibcode:2004RMxAC..22..117K. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 7 September 2014.

[time-164] "Hurtling Through the Void". Time. 20 June 1983. Archived from the original on 22 December 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2011.

[165] Staub, D.W. (25 March 1967). SNAP 10 Summary Report. Atomics International Division of North American Aviation, Inc., Canoga Park, California. NAA-SR-12073.

[166] "U.S. ADMISSION: Satellite mishap released rays". The Canberra Times. 52 (15, 547). Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 30 March 1978. p. 5. Archived from the original on 21 August 2021. Retrieved 12 August 2017 – via National Library of Australia., "Launched in 1965 and carrying about 4.5 kilograms of uranium 235, Snap 10A is in a 1,000-year orbit ..."

[lavender-167] Jump up to: ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ Bailer-Jones, Coryn A. L.; Farnocchia, Davide (3 April 2019). "Future stellar flybys of the Voyager and Pioneer spacecraft". Research Notes of the American Astronomical Society. 3 (59): 59. arXiv:1912.03503. Bibcode:2019RNAAS...3...59B. doi:10.3847/2515-5172/ab158e. S2CID 134524048.

[glob-168] "Cornell News: "It's the 25th Anniversary of Earth's First (and only) Attempt to Phone E.T."". Cornell University. 12 November 1999. Archived from the original on 2 August 2008. Retrieved 29 March 2008.

[169] Deamer, Dave. "In regard to the email from". Science 2.0. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 14 November 2014.

[keo1-170] "KEO FAQ". keo.org. Archived from the original on 8 January 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2011.

[Pioneer_Ames-171] Jump up to: ^a ^b "The Pioneer Missions". NASA. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 5 September 2011.

[172] Lasher, Lawrence. "Pioneer Mission Status". NASA. Archived from the original on 8 April 2000. [Pioneer's speed is] about 12 km/s... [the plate etching] should survive recognizable at least to a distance ≈10 parsecs, and most probably to 100 parsecs.

[lageos-173] "LAGEOS 1, 2". NASA. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2012.

[174] Jad Abumrad and Robert Krulwich (12 February 2010). Carl Sagan And Ann Druyan's Ultimate Mix Tape (Radio). NPR.

[Conception-175] Conception Archived 19 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Official Zeitpyramide website. Retrieved 14 December 2010.

[176] Linder, Courtney (15 November 2019). "Microsoft is Storing Source Code in an Arctic Cave". Popular Mechanics. Archived from the original on 16 March 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2021.

[177] The Book of Record of the Time Capsule of Cupaloy. New York City: Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company. 1938. p. 6.

[178] "Time Capsule Expo 1970". panasonic.net. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 15 October 2020.

[179] "1970 Time Capsule Dug Up". web-japan.org. April 2000. Archived from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2021.

[crypt1-180] "The New Georgia Encyclopedia – Crypt of Civilization". Archived from the original on 10 February 2021. Retrieved 29 June 2008.

[crypt3-181] "History of the Crypt of Civilization". Archived from the original on 2 October 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2015.

[longnow-182] "The Long Now Foundation". The Long Now Foundation. 2011. Archived from the original on 16 June 2021. Retrieved 21 September 2011.

[183] "A Visit to the Doomsday Vault". CBS News. 20 March 2008. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 5 January 2018.

[184] Focus, Forensic (6 April 2013). "Interpretation of NTFS Timestamps". Forensic Focus. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2021.

[185] "Date - JavaScript". developer.mozilla.org. Mozilla. Archived from the original on 21 July 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2021.

[186] "Memory of Mankind". Archived from the original on 16 July 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2019.

[187] "Human Document Project 2014". Archived from the original on 19 May 2014. Retrieved 19 May 2014.

[188] "When will System.currentTimeMillis() overflow?". Stack Overflow. Archived from the original on 21 August 2021. Retrieved 26 September 2020.

[189] Begtrup, G. E.; Gannett, W.; Yuzvinsky, T. D.; Crespi, V. H.; et al. (13 May 2009). "Nanoscale Reversible Mass Transport for Archival Memory" (PDF). Nano Letters. 9 (5): 1835–1838. Bibcode:2009NanoL...9.1835B. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.534.8855. doi:10.1021/nl803800c. PMID 19400579. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 June 2010.

[190] "Date/Time Conversion Contract Language" (PDF). Office of Information Technology Services, New York (state). 19 May 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 April 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2020.

[191] Zhang, J.; Gecevičius, M.; Beresna, M.; Kazansky, P. G. (2014). "Seemingly unlimited lifetime data storage in nanostructured glass". Phys. Rev. Lett. 112 (3): 033901. Bibcode:2014PhRvL.112c3901Z. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.033901. PMID 24484138. Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 6 September 2018.

[192] Zhang, J.; Gecevičius, M.; Beresna, M.; Kazansky, P. G. (June 2013). "5D Data Storage by Ultrafast Laser Nanostructuring in Glass" (PDF). CLEO: Science and Innovations: CTh5D–9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 September 2014.

[193] Artaxo, Paulo; Berntsen, Terje; Betts, Richard; Fahey, David W.; Haywood, James; Lean, Judith; Lowe, David C.; Myhre, Gunnar; Nganga, John; Prinn, Ronald; Raga, Graciela; Schulz, Michael; van Dorland, Robert (February 2018). "Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing" (PDF). International Panel on Climate Change. p. 212. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 February 2019. Retrieved 17 March 2021.

[194] "Time it takes for garbage to decompose in the environment" (PDF). New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 June 2014. Retrieved 23 May 2014.

[195] Lyle, Paul (2010). Between Rocks And Hard Places: Discovering Ireland's Northern Landscapes. Geological Survey of Northern Ireland.^{[ISBN missing]}

[196] Weisman, Alan (10 July 2007). The World Without Us. New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press. pp. 171–172. ISBN 978-0-312-34729-1. OCLC 122261590.

[197] "Apollo 11 – First Footprint on the Moon". Student Features. NASA. Archived from the original on 3 April 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2014.

[198] Meadows, A. J. (2007). The Future of the Universe. Springer. pp. 81–83. ISBN 9781852339463.^{[ISBN missing]}

[199] Weisman, Alan (10 July 2007). The World Without Us. New York: Thomas Dunne Books/St. Martin's Press. p. 182. ISBN 978-0-312-34729-1. OCLC 122261590.

[200] Zalasiewicz, Jan (25 September 2008). The Earth After Us: What legacy will humans leave in the rocks?. Oxford University Press., Review in Stanford Archaeology

[201] "Permanent Markers Implementation Plan" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. 30 August 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2006.

[TimeDisaster-202] Time: Disasters that Shook the World. New York City: Time Home Entertainment. 2012. ISBN 978-1-60320-247-3.

[Fetter-203] Jump up to: ^a ^b Fetter, Steve (March 2009). "How long will the world's uranium supplies last?". Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 22 May 2014.

[NUBASE2016-204] Jump up to: ^a ^b Audi, G.; Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S. (2017). "The NUBASE2016 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 41 (3): 030001. Bibcode:2017ChPhC..41c0001A. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/41/3/030001.

[205] Rimshaw, S. J. (1968). Hampel, C. A. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements. New York: Reinhold Book Corporation. pp. 689–693.

[206] Biello, David (28 January 2009). "Spent Nuclear Fuel: A Trash Heap Deadly for 250,000 Years or a Renewable Energy Source?". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 10 July 2021. Retrieved 5 January 2018.

[207] Wolfson, Richard; Dalnoki-Veress, Ferenc (2021). Nuclear Choices for the Twenty-First Century: A Citizen's Guide. MIT Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-262-36201-6. Archived from the original on 2 August 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2021.

[Ongena_3–14-208] Jump up to: ^a ^b Ongena, J; G. Van Oost (2004). "Energy for future centuries – Will fusion be an inexhaustible, safe and clean energy source?" (PDF). Fusion Science and Technology. 2004. 45 (2T): 3–14. doi:10.13182/FST04-A464. S2CID 15368449. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2016. Retrieved 2 July 2016.

[Cohen-209] Cohen, Bernard L. (January 1983). "Breeder Reactors: A Renewable Energy Source" (PDF). American Journal of Physics. 51 (1): 75. Bibcode:1983AmJPh..51...75C. doi:10.1119/1.13440. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 February 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2017.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[note 1]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[note 2]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

show v t Millennia
CE / AD	1st 2nd 3rd far future
BCE / BC	1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th prehistory natural history