680s

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Millennium: 1st millennium
Centuries:
  • 6th century
  • 7th century
  • 8th century
Decades:
Years:
  • 680
  • 681
  • 682
  • 683
  • 684
  • 685
  • 686
  • 687
  • 688
  • 689
Categories:
  • Births
  • Deaths
  • Establishments
  • Disestablishments

The 680s decade ran from January 1, 680, to December 31, 689.

Events

680

This section is transcluded from AD 680. ( | )

By place[]

Byzantine Empire[]
  • Byzantine–Bulgarian War: The Bulgars under Asparukh subjugate the country of current-day Bulgaria, north of the Balkan Mountains. Emperor Constantine IV leads a combined land and sea operation against the invaders and besieges their fortified camp in Dobruja.[1]
  • Battle of Ongal: The Byzantine army (25,000 men) under Constantine IV is defeated by the Bulgars and their Slavic allies in the Danube Delta. Bulgar cavalry force the Byzantines into a rout, while Constantine (suffering from leg pain) travels to Nesebar to seek treatment.
Europe[]
  • King Wamba is deposed after an 8-year reign, and forced to retire to a monastery. He is succeeded by Erwig who becomes ruler of the Visigothic Kingdom.
  • King Perctarit makes his son Cunipert co-ruler of the Lombard Kingdom. He signs a formal peace treaty with Constantine IV.
  • Pippin of Herstal becomes Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia.
  • The emporium (market town) of Dorestad is founded near the mouth of the Rhine, and soon becomes a major trading settlement in the North Sea region (approximate date).[2]
Britain[]
Arabian Empire[]
  • Yazid I, son of Muawiyah I, becomes the sixth caliph (second Umayyad caliph) but Kufans in Mesopotamia rebel and invite Hussein ibn Ali (grandson of Muhammad) to take the throne.
  • October 10 – Battle of Karbala: Forces under Yazid I kill Hussein ibn Ali and his closest supporters.[4] This event leads to the civil war known as the Second Fitna.
Asia[]
  • In Japan, Princess Uno Sarara is unwell, and Emperor Tenmu begins the erection of the Temple of Yakushi-ji (Nara Prefecture). He makes 100 persons enter religion as priests, wishing her to recover her health.

By topic[]

Religion[]
  • September 17 – Theodore of Tarsus, archbishop of Canterbury, convenes a synod at Hatfield that clears the English Church from any association with the heresy of monothelitism.[5]
  • November 7 – The Third Council of Constantinople (Sixth Ecumenical Council) opens in Constantinople to settle the theological controversies of monoenergism and monothelitism, ending September 16, 681.
  • Wilfrid returns to Northumbria, with papal support, but is imprisoned by King Ecgfrith, and again exiled. He travels to the Kingdom of Sussex and begins to evangelise the people.
  • King Merewalh of Magonsæte founds the monastery of Wenlock Priory in Shropshire, England, appointing his daughter Milburga as Benedictine abbess.
  • Approximate date
    • Boniface begins his education at an English Celtic Christian monastery, probably in Exeter near his birthplace and one of many monasteriola built by local landowners and churchmen.[6]
    • The Book of Durrow is created, probably in Northumbria or on the island of Iona in the Scottish Inner Hebrides.

681

This section is transcluded from AD 681. ( | )

By place[]

Byzantine Empire[]
  • Byzantine–Bulgarian War: Emperor Constantine IV is forced to acknowledge the Bulgar state in Moesia, and to pay protection money to avoid further inroads into Byzantine Thrace.[7] Consequently, Constantine creates the Theme of Thrace of the Byzantine Empire (located in the south-eastern Balkans).[8]
  • Constantine IV has his brothers Heraclius and Tiberius mutilated, so they will be unable to rule. He orders that their images no longer appear on any coinage, and that their names be removed from official documentation.[9] Constantine raises his son Justinian II to the throne as joint emperor (Augustus).
  • Autumn – A military revolt breaks out in the Anatolic Theme (modern Turkey). The Byzantine army marches to Chrysopolis, and sends a delegation across the straits of the Hellespont to Constantinople, demanding that the two brothers should remain co-emperors alongside Constantine IV.[10]
  • Constantine IV agrees to a compromise, and persuades the army to return to their barracks in Anatolia. He invites the leaders of the rebellion to come to Constantinople and consult the Senate as to how to implement the terms. On their arrival, he arrests the leaders and has them hung at Sycae.[11]
Europe[]
  • January 9 – Twelfth Council of Toledo: King Erwig of the Visigoths initiates a council, in which he implements diverse measures against the Jews. Laws against violence to slaves are suppressed.
Britain[]
Arabian Empire[]
  • A Muslim Arab army led by Uqba ibn Nafi reaches Morocco, before being forced back into Cyrene by the Berbers.[12]
  • Armenians, Albanians, and Iberians rise in rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate (approximate date).
Asia[]

By topic[]

Religion[]
  • January 10 – Pope Agatho dies at Rome of plague after a 2½-year reign, in which he has persuaded Constantine IV to abolish the tax heretofore levied at the consecration of a newly elected pope.
  • September 16 – The Sixth Ecumenical Council (see 680) ends at Constantinople. The council reaffirms the Orthodox doctrines of the Council of Chalcedon in 451, and condemns monothelitism.[14]

682

This section is transcluded from AD 682. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • King Erwig of the Visigoths continues oppression of the Jews in Spain. He makes it illegal to practice any Jewish rites (brit milah), and presses for the conversion or emigration of the remaining Jews.
  • Ghislemar becomes mayor of the palace in Neustria and Burgundy, after he deposes his father Waratton. He reverses the peace treaty with Austrasia, signed with Pepin of Herstal at Namur.
  • King Ecgfrith requests Benedict Biscop to build a second monastery at Jarrow (Northumbria). Benedict leaves Monkwearmouth with 20 monks, (including his protégé, the young Bede).
  • The West Saxons, led by King Centwine, drive the Britons of Dumnonia (West Country) to the sea (possibly around Bideford).
  • The wandering ex-Wessex sub-king, Cædwalla, seeks St. Wilfrid as his spiritual father, but does not convert to Christianity.
  • Bridei III, King of the Picts, campaigns violently against Orkney.[15]
Africa[]
  • Muslim forces led by Uqba ibn Nafi overrun the south coast of the Mediterranean Sea. He occupies the cities of Tripoli and Carthage, the last Byzantine bases in Africa (approximate date).
Asia[]
  • Due to a culmination of major droughts, floods, locust plagues, and epidemics, a widespread famine breaks out in the dual Chinese capital cities of Chang'an (primary capital) and Luoyang (secondary capital). The scarcity of food drives the price of grain to unprecedented heights, ending a once prosperous era under emperors Tai Zong and Gao Zong on a sad note.
  • Emperor Tenmu issues a decree forbidding the Japanese-style cap of ranks and garments, and changing them into Chinese ones. He also makes a decree forbidding men to wear leggings and women to let down their hair on their backs. It is from this time, that the practice begins of women riding on horseback like men. He issues an edict prescribing the character of ceremonies and language to be used on occasions of ceremony. Ceremonial kneeling and crawling are both abolished, and the ceremonial custom of standing at the Tang court is practiced.
Mesoamerica[]
  • Jasaw Chan K'awiil I starts to rule in Tikal (modern Guatemala) during the Late Classic period.
  • B'alaj Chan K'awiil begins a program to inscribe monuments recording his travails and ultimate victory, during the Second Tikal-Calakmul War.

By topic[]

Astronomy[]
  • January 3 – Venus occults Jupiter.
Literature[]
Religion[]
  • August 17 – Pope Leo II succeeds Agatho as the 80th pope, after a period of sede vacante ("vacant seat") of a year and 7 months.

683

This section is transcluded from AD 683. ( | )

By place[]

Britain[]
Arabian Empire[]
  • Siege of Mecca: The Umayyad army led by Husayn ibn Numayr al-Sakuni besieges Mecca, during which the Kaaba ("Sacred House") catches fire and is burned down.
  • Uqba ibn Nafi, Arab general, is ambushed and killed near Biskra (modern Algeria). His Muslim army evacuates the city of Kairouan in Tunisia, and withdraws to Barca.
  • November 14 – Caliph Yazid I dies at Damascus, after a 3-year reign marked by civil war. He is succeeded by his son Muawiya II as ruler of the Umayyad Caliphate.
Asia[]
  • December 27 – Emperor Gao Zong dies at Luoyang, age 55, after a 34-year reign in which he expanded the Chinese Empire by acquiring Korea as a vassal state.
  • Emperor Tenmu decrees a reform in Japan; copper coins must be used instead of silver coins. Three days later he issues a decree to allow the continued use of silver.
  • Prince Ōtsu, son of Tenmu, attends to matters of State for the first time (approximate date).
  • Sri Vijaya is founded by Sri Jayanasa in Sumatra
Mesoamerica[]
  • Pacal the Great, ruler (ajaw) of the Maya state of Palenque (Mexico), dies after a 68-year reign. He is buried in the Temple of the Inscriptions. He was the longest-reigning monarch in the world until Louis XIV broke that record in 1711, almost 1028 years later and remained the longest-reigning monarch in the Americas until Elizabeth II broke that record in 2020, almost 1337 years later

By topic[]

Religion[]

684

This section is transcluded from AD 684. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • Ghislemar, mayor of the palace in Neustria and Burgundy, dies after a 2-year reign, and is succeeded by his father Waratton. He makes peace between the three Frankish kingdoms.
Britain[]
Arabian Empire[]
  • Caliph Muawiya II dies at Damascus, after a brief reign that ends Sufyanid rule. A new caliph is proclaimed in Syria amidst tribal wars, but Marwan I will reign until next year.
  • August 18 – Battle of Marj Rahit: Muslim partisans under Marwan I defeat the supporters of Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr near Damascus, and cement Umayyad control of Syria.
Asia[]
  • January 3 – Zhong Zong succeeds his father Gao Zong, and becomes emperor of the Tang Dynasty. His mother Wu Zetian remains the power behind the throne in China.
  • February 27 – Wu Zetian replaces Zhong Zong in favor of his younger brother Rui Zong. He becomes a puppet ruler, and Zhong Zong is placed under house arrest.
  • Summer – The Pallava Empire (modern India) invades the kingdom of Ceylon. A Pallavan naval expedition employing Tamil mercenaries ends the Moriya Dynasty.
  • September 7 – A large comet is observed in Japan (it's Japan's oldest observation record of the Halley's Comet).
  • November 13 – Emperor Tenmu institutes eight titles of eight classes (Yakusa-no-kabane) in Japan.
  • November 26 – 684 Hakuho earthquake. A great earthquake strikes Japan. The people, houses, temples, shrines and domestic animals are greatly damaged.
Mesoamerica[]

By topic[]

Religion[]
  • Cuthbert is elected Bishop of Hexham, and receives a visit from a large group under Ecgfrith. He agrees to return to Lindisfarne (Northumbria) to take up duties.
  • June 26 – Pope Benedict II succeeds Leo II as the 81st pope of Rome, after a period of sede vacante ("vacant seat") of 1 year.

685

This section is transcluded from AD 685. ( | )

By place[]

Byzantine Empire[]
  • September – Emperor Constantine IV dies of dysentery at Constantinople after a 17-year reign, and is succeeded by his 16-year-old son Justinian II.[18]
Europe[]
  • Kuber, brother of Asparukh of Bulgaria, defeats the Avars in Syrmia (Pannonia). He leads his followers of around 70,000 people to Macedonia (modern North Macedonia).
Britain[]
  • May 20 – Battle of Dun Nechtain: The Picts under King Bridei III revolt against their Northumbrian overlords. Cuthbert, bishop of Lindisfarne, advises King Ecgfrith of Northumbria (Bridei's cousin) not to invade Pictland (modern Scotland). Undeterred, Ecgfrith marches his army north to engage the enemy near Dunnichen. The Picts, possibly with Scottish and Strathclyde Briton help, defeat the Saxon guard, killing Ecgfrith, who has reigned for 15 years, routing his army and forcing the Anglo-Saxons to withdraw south of the River Forth.
  • King Centwine of Wessex dies after a 9-year reign and is succeeded by his distant cousin, Cædwalla, who manages to fully re-unite the sub-kingdoms of Wessex. He attacks Sussex with a large army, and kills King Æthelwealh in battle, in the South Downs (Hampshire).[19] He is expelled by Æthelwealh's ealdormen, Berthun and Andhun, who jointly rule the South Saxons. Cædwalla invades Kent, lays it waste, and carries off an immense booty.[20]
  • Aldfrith, illegitimate half-brother of Ecgfrith, becomes (possibly with Irish and Scottish help) king of Northumbria. He is brought from Iona (Inner Hebrides), where he is studying for a career in the church.
  • King Eadric revolts against his uncle Hlothhere, and defeats him in battle. He becomes sole ruler of Kent until his death in 686.
Arabian Empire[]
China[]
  • Empress Wu Zetian sends a pair of giant pandas to the Japanese court of Emperor Tenmu, as a diplomatic gift (approximate date).
  • Wu Zetian exiles her son Zhong Zong, former emperor of the Tang Dynasty, and his family to the island of Fang Zhou.[21]

By topic[]

Religion[]
  • May 8 – Pope Benedict II dies at Rome after a reign of less than 11 months. He is succeeded by John V as the 82nd pope.
  • John Maron is elected as the first patriarch in the Maronite Church (approximate date).

686

This section is transcluded from AD 686. ( | )

By place[]

Europe[]
  • Waratton, mayor of the palace of Neustria and Burgundy, dies and is succeeded by his son-in-law Berchar. He advises King Theuderic III to break the peace treaty with Pepin of Herstal, and declares war on Austrasia.
Britain[]
  • King Cædwalla of Wessex establishes overlordship of Essex, and invades Kent for a second time. King Eadric is expelled, and Cædwalla's brother Mul is installed in his place. The sub-kings Berthun and Andhun are killed, and Sussex is subjugated by the West Saxons.
  • Cædwalla conquers Surrey, and tries to exterminate the Jutes of the Isle of Wight. He executes King Arwald and his two brothers. Cædwalla probably also overruns the Meonware, a Jutish people who live in the Meon Valley (Hampshire).
Arabian Empire[]
  • August 6 – Battle of Khazir in Mosul: Alid forces of Mukhtar al-Thaqafi defeat those of the Umayyad Caliphate.
  • Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad, former governor of Mesopotamia, tries to regain control of his province, as the various Muslim tribes in the region Kufa (Iraq) are engaged in an Islamic civil war.
  • Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan imprisons and tortures patriarch Mar Khnanishu I. He is the first caliph to insist on the collection of the poll tax from the Christians (approximate date).
Asia[]
  • October 1 – Emperor Tenmu of Japan dies after a 13-year reign, and is succeeded by his widow (and niece), Empress Jitō. She will reign until 697.
  • October 25 – Prince Ōtsu, son of Tenmu, is falsely accused of treason by Jito and forced to commit suicide, along with his wife Yamanobe.

By topic[]

Religion[]
  • August 2 – Pope John V dies at Rome after a 12-month reign, in which he has made handsome donations to the poor. He is succeeded by Conon I as the 83rd pope of the Catholic Church.
  • Plague kills almost all the Benedictine monks in the monastery of Monkwearmouth–Jarrow Abbey (Northumbria), aside from the abbot Ceolfrith and one small boy – future scholar Bede.[22][23]
  • Wilfrid, bishop of York, becomes an advisor of Cædwalla, and is sent to the Isle of Wight to evangelise the inhabitants.[24]

687

This section is transcluded from AD 687. ( | )

By place[]

Byzantine Empire[]
  • Emperor Justinian II negotiates a peace treaty with the Umayyad Caliphate (resulting in caliph Abd al-Malik paying tribute). He removes 12,000 Christian Maronites, who continually resist the Arabs, from Lebanon.[25] Justinian reinforces the Byzantine navy on Cyprus, and transfers cavalry troops from Anatolia to the Thracesian Theme (Balkan Peninsula).
Europe[]
  • Battle of Tertry: King Theuderic III of Neustria is defeated by Pepin of Herstal, mayor of the palace of Austrasia, near Péronne (modern France), at the River Somme. Theuderic withdraws to Paris and is forced to sign a peace treaty. Pepin becomes "de facto" ruler of the Frankish Kingdom, and begins calling himself Duke of the Franks. He establishes a base for the future rise of the Pippinids and the Carolingians. Pepin appoints Nordebert as Duke of Burgundy, and puts him in charge of Neustria and Burgundy (as a sort of regent).
  • King Erwig dies after a 7-year reign, and is succeeded by his son-in-law Ergica as ruler of the Visigothic Kingdom.
Britain[]

By topic[]

Religion[]
  • Cuthbert, bishop of Lindisfarne, resigns his office and retires to his hermitage on Inner Farne (Northumberland) where he dies, after a painful illness.[26]
  • September 21 – Pope Conon I dies at Rome after a 1-year reign, and is succeeded by Sergius I as the 84th pope of the Catholic Church.
  • Construction of the Dome of the Rock, located on the Temple Mount, is started in Jerusalem (approximate date).

688

This section is transcluded from AD 688. ( | )

By place[]

Byzantine Empire[]
  • Byzantine–Bulgarian War: Emperor Justinian II carries out a Balkan campaign and marches through Thrace, where he restores Byzantine rule. He establishes a theme administration, and migrates many Bulgars and Slavs to the Opsician Theme (Asia Minor).[27]
  • Justinian II reestablishes Byzantine settlement on Cyprus, signing a treaty with Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik (and paying an annual tribute) for joint occupation of the island.
Europe[]
  • King Perctarit of the Lombards is assassinated by a conspiracy, after a 17-year reign. He is succeeded by his son Cunipert, who is crowned ruler of the Lombard Kingdom in Italy.
  • Alahis, duke of Brescia, starts a civil war in Northern Italy. He besieges Cunipert on an island in Lake Como (Lombardy), who breaks out with Piedmontese troops.
Britain[]
  • King Caedwalla of Wessex abdicates the throne and departs on a pilgrimage to Rome, possibly because of the wounds he suffered while fighting on the Isle of Wight.[28] The power vacuum is filled by Ine, son of his second cousin, sub-king Coenred of Dorset.
  • King Æthelred of Mercia establishes Mercian dominance over most of Southern England. He installs Oswine, minor member of the Kentish royal family (second cousin of king Eadric), as king of Kent. Prince Swæfheard of Essex is given West Kent.

By topic[]

Religion[]
  • Eadberht is appointed bishop of Lindisfarne (Northumbria). He founds the holy shrine to his predecessor Cuthbert, a place that becomes a centre of great pilgrimage in later years.

689

This section is transcluded from AD 689. ( | )

By place[]

Byzantine Empire[]
  • Byzantine–Bulgarian War: Emperor Justinian II defeats the Bulgars of Macedonia and recaptures Thessalonica, the second most important Byzantine city in Europe.[29] He resettles the subdued Slavs in Anatolia (modern Turkey), where they are required to provide 30,000 men to the Byzantine army.
Europe[]
  • Battle of Coronate: The Lombards under King Cunipert defeat the army of Duke Alahis, at the River Adda (Lombardy). He executes the rebel leaders; Alahis is captured and his head and legs are cut off.[30] The southern Lombard duchies take advantage of Cunipert's distraction, and extend their territories.
  • Battle of Dorestad: The Frisians under King Radbod are defeated by the Frankish mayor of the palace, Pippin of Herstal.[31] The Rhine delta and Dorestad (modern Netherlands) become Frankish again, as well as the castles of Utrecht and Fechten (approximate date).
Asia[]
  • The Asuka Kiyomihara Code, a collection of governing rules commenced in 681 under Emperor Tenmu, is promulgated in Japan.

By topic[]

Religion[]
  • Cædwalla of Wessex arrives in Rome and is baptised by pope Sergius I, taking the name Peter. He dies 10 days later and is buried at St. Peter's Basilica.
  • Prince Oswald, brother of King Osric of Hwicce, founds Pershore Abbey in Worcestershire (approximate date).

Significant people[]

Births[]

Transcluding articles: 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685, 686, 687, 688, and 689

680

  • Fujiwara no Muchimaro, Japanese politician (d. 737)
  • Genshō, empress of Japan (d. 748)
  • Oda of Scotland, Christian saint (approximate date)
  • Wu Daozi, Chinese painter (d. 760)

681

682

683

684

  • Gao Lishi, official and eunuch of the Tang Dynasty (d. 762)
  • Li Guo'er, princess of the Tang Dynasty (approximate date)
  • Nagaya, Japanese prince and politician (d. 729)
  • Tachibana no Moroe, Japanese prince and minister (d. 757)

685

  • March 17, Saint Patrick, patron saint of Ireland (d. 385)
  • September 8 – Xuan Zong, emperor of the Tang Dynasty (d. 762)
  • Leo III, emperor of the Byzantine Empire (d. 741)
  • Li Xianhui, princess of the Tang Dynasty (d. 701)
  • Miao Jinqing, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (d. 765)
  • Pelagius, king of Asturias (approximate date)
  • Theodbert, duke of Bavaria (approximate date)

687

688

  • Charles Martel, Frankish statesman and founder of the Carolingian Dynasty (d. 741)
  • Jianzhen, Chinese Buddhist monk (d. 763)
  • Wang Zhihuan, Chinese poet (d. 742)

689

  • Othmar, Swiss abbot (approximate date)
  • Rōben, Japanese Buddhist monk (d. 773)

Deaths[]

Transcluding articles: 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685, 686, 687, 688, and 689

680

  • January 1 – Javanshir, king of Caucasian Albania (b. 616)
  • January 30 – Balthild, queen of the Franks
  • October 9 – Ghislain, Frankish anchorite and saint
  • October 10
    • Abbas ibn Ali, son of Imam Ali
    • Ali al-Akbar ibn Husayn, son of Al-Husayn
    • Ali al-Asghar ibn Husayn, son of Al-Husayn
    • Habib ibn Madhahir
    • Husayn ibn Ali, third Shia Imam and grandson of Muhammad (b. 626)K
  • Agatho, pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church
  • Bhāskara I, Indian mathematician (approximate date)
  • Cædmon, Northumbrian poet
  • Ebroin, Mayor of the Palace of Neustria (or 681)
  • Hilda of Whitby, Northumbrian abbess and saint
  • Muawiyah I, founder of the Umayyad Caliphate (b. 602)
  • Umm Salama, wife of Muhammad
  • Vikramaditya I, king of Chalukya (India)
  • Wulfoald, Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia

681

682

683

684

685

  • May 8 – Benedict II, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 635)[33]
  • May 20 – Ecgfrith, king of Northumbria
  • Æthelwealh, king of Sussex
  • Anania Shirakatsi, Armenian astronomer (b. 610)
  • Beornhæth, Anglo-Saxon nobleman
  • Centwine, king of Wessex (approximate date)
  • Constantine IV, Byzantine emperor (b. 652)
  • Hlothhere, king of Kent
  • Liu Rengui, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (b. 602)

686

  • August 2 – John V, pope of Rome (b. 635)
  • October 1 – Tenmu, emperor of Japan
  • October 25 – Ōtsu, Japanese prince (b. 663)
  • Andhun, king of Sussex
  • Arwald, king of the Isle of Wight
  • Audoin, bishop of Rouen (b. 609)
  • Berthun, king of Sussex
  • Eadric, king of Kent (approximate date)
  • Eanflæd, queen of Northumbria (approximate date)
  • Eata of Hexham, bishop of Lindisfarne
  • Husayn ibn Numayr, Muslim general
  • Landelin, Frankish abbot and saint
  • Waratton, mayor of the palace of Neustria
  • Wonhyo, Korean Buddhist monk (b. 617)
  • Yamanobe, Japanese princess

687

  • March 20 – Cuthbert, Anglo-Saxon bishop
  • September 21 – Pope Conon I
  • Abd Allah ibn Abbas, cousin of Muhammad
  • Erwig, king of the Visigoths
  • Mul, king of Kent (England)
  • Romuald I
  • Wamba, king of the Visigoths

688

689

References[]

  1. ^ Bury 1889, pp. 333–334.
  2. ^ Hodges 1984.
  3. ^ Kirby 1992, p. 119.
  4. ^ Gordon 2005, pp. 144–146.
  5. ^ Collier & Barham 1840, p. 250.
  6. ^ Schieffer 1972, pp. 76–77, 103–105.
  7. ^ Norwich 1990, p. 326.
  8. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 501.
  9. ^ Bellinger & Grierson 1968, p. 513.
  10. ^ Bury 1889, p. 308.
  11. ^ Bury 1889, p. 309.
  12. ^ Tucker 2010, p. 205.
  13. ^ a b "List of Rulers of Korea". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 25 April 2019.
  14. ^ Canduci, p. 198.[full citation needed]
  15. ^ Annals of Ulster.[full citation needed]
  16. ^ Chaney, William A. (1970). The Cult of Kingship in Anglo-Saxon England: The Transition from Paganism to Christianity. Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. 168.
  17. ^ Bede, Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum.[full citation needed]
  18. ^ Kazhdan 1991, p. 1084.
  19. ^ Alec Hamilton-Barr. In Saxon Sussex. The Arundel Press, Bognor Regis, p. 21
  20. ^ A Chronicle of England (B.C. 55–A.D. 1485), by James. E. Doyle (1864). "The Saxons", p. 37
  21. ^ The Events of the Tang Dynasty: "Time line of the Tang Dynasty" (Tang Zhong Zong 684–685 A.D)
  22. ^ Blair 1990, p. 178.
  23. ^ Plummer, Bedae Opera Historica, Vol. 1, p. 12
  24. ^ John 1996, pp. 34–35.
  25. ^ Bury 1889, p. 321.
  26. ^ Farmer, David Hugh (1997). The Oxford Dictionary of Saints. Oxford University Press. p. 120. ISBN 0-19-280058-2.
  27. ^ Fine, John V. A. Jr. (1991) [1983]. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p. 71. ISBN 0-472-08149-7.
  28. ^ Yorke, Barbara (1990), "Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England", London: Seaby, ISBN 1-85264-027-8
  29. ^ Ostrogorsky 1956, pp. 116–122.
  30. ^ Hodgkin, Thomas (1895). "Italy and her Invaders", volume 6. Oxford
  31. ^ Blok 1968, pp. 32–34.
  32. ^ Van Rompay, Lucas (2011). "Severos bar Mashqo". In Sebastian P. Brock; Aaron M. Butts; George A. Kiraz; Lucas Van Rompay (eds.). Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
  33. ^ "Saint Benedict II | pope". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 15 October 2021.

Sources[]

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