Biochar

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A hand holding a piece of biochar with a bucket of it in the background
A piece of biochar
Small pellets of biochar
Smaller pellets of biochar
A large pile of biochar
Biochar after production, in a large pile

Biochar is charcoal that is produced by pyrolysis of biomass in the absence of oxygen; it is used as a soil amendment. Biochar is defined by the International Biochar Initiative as "The solid material obtained from the thermochemical conversion of biomass in an oxygen-limited environment".[1] Biochar is a stable solid that is rich in carbon and can endure in soil for thousands of years.[2]

Biochar is being investigated as a means of carbon sequestration,[2] and it may be a means to mitigate climate change.[3][4][5] It results from processes related to pyrogenic carbon capture and storage (PyCCS).[6] Biochar may increase the soil fertility of acidic soils, increase agricultural productivity, and provide protection against some foliar and soil-borne diseases.[7]

History[]

The word "biochar" is a late 20th century English neologism derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, "life" and "char" (charcoal produced by carbonisation of biomass).[8] It is recognised as charcoal that participates in biological processes found in soil, aquatic habitats and in animal digestive systems.

Pre-Columbian Amazonians produced biochar by smoldering agricultural waste (i.e., covering burning biomass with soil)[9] in pits or trenches.[10] It is not known if they intentionally used biochar to enhance soil productivity.[10] European settlers called it terra preta de Indio.[11] Following observations and experiments, a research team working in French Guiana hypothesized that the Amazonian earthworm Pontoscolex corethrurus was the main agent of fine powdering and incorporation of charcoal debris in the mineral soil.[12]

Production[]

Biochar is a high-carbon, fine-grained residue that is produced via pyrolysis; it is the direct thermal decomposition of biomass in the absence of oxygen (preventing combustion), which produces a mixture of solids (the biochar proper), liquid (bio-oil), and gas (syngas) products. The specific yield from pyrolysis is dependent on process conditions such as temperature, residence time, and heating rate.[13] These parameters can be tuned to produce either energy or biochar.[14] Temperatures of 400–500 °C (673–773 K) produce more char, whereas temperatures above 700 °C (973 K) favor the yield of liquid and gas fuel components.[15] Pyrolysis occurs more quickly at higher temperatures, typically requiring seconds rather than hours. The increasing heating rate leads to a decrease of biochar yield, while the temperature is in the range of 350–600 °C (623–873 K).[16] Typical yields are 60% bio-oil, 20% biochar, and 20% syngas. By comparison, slow pyrolysis can produce substantially more char (≈35%);[15] this contributes to soil fertility. Once initialized, both processes produce net energy. For typical inputs, the energy required to run a "fast" pyrolyzer is approximately 15% of the energy that it outputs.[17] Pyrolysis plants can use the syngas output and yield 3–9 times the amount of energy required to run.[10]

Besides pyrolysis, torrefaction and hydrothermal carbonization processes can also thermally decompose biomass to the solid material. However, these products cannot be strictly defined as biochar. The carbon product from the torrefaction process contains some volatile organic components, thus its properties are between that of biomass feedstock and biochar.[18] Furthermore, even the hydrothermal carbonization could produce a carbon-rich solid product, the hydrothermal carbonization is evidently different from the conventional thermal conversion process.[19] Therefore, the solid product from hydrothermal carbonization is defined as "hydrochar" rather than "biochar".

The Amazonian pit/trench method[10] harvests neither bio-oil nor syngas, and releases CO
2, black carbon, and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) (and potentially, toxins) into the air, though less greenhouse gasses than captured during the growth of the biomass. Commercial-scale systems process agricultural waste, paper byproducts, and even municipal waste and typically eliminate these side effects by capturing and using the liquid and gas products. The production of biochar as an output is not a priority in most cases.

Centralized, decentralized, and mobile systems[]

In a centralized system, unused biomass is brought to a central plant (i.e. biomass-fueled thermal power station[20]) for processing into biochar. Alternatively, each farmer or group of farmers can operate a kiln. Finally, a truck equipped with a pyrolyzer can move from place to place to pyrolyze biomass. Vehicle power comes from the syngas stream, while the biochar remains on the farm. The biofuel is sent to a refinery or storage site. Factors that influence the choice of system type include the cost of transportation of the liquid and solid byproducts, the amount of material to be processed, and the ability to supply the power grid.

Common crops used for making biochar include various tree species, as well as various energy crops. Some of these energy crops (i.e. Napier grass) can store much more carbon on a shorter timespan than trees do.[21]

For crops that are not exclusively for biochar production, the Residue-to-Product Ratio (RPR) and the collection factor (CF), the percent of the residue not used for other things, measure the approximate amount of feedstock that can be obtained. For instance, Brazil harvests approximately 460 million tons (MT) of sugarcane annually,[22] with an RPR of 0.30, and a CF of 0.70 for the sugarcane tops, which normally are burned in the field.[23] This translates into approximately 100 MT of residue annually, which could be pyrolyzed to create energy and soil additives. Adding in the bagasse (sugarcane waste) (RPR=0.29 CF=1.0), which is otherwise burned (inefficiently) in boilers, raises the total to 230 MT of pyrolysis feedstock. Some plant residue, however, must remain on the soil to avoid increased costs and emissions from nitrogen fertilizers.[24]

Various companies in North America, Australia, and England sell biochar or biochar production units. In Sweden the 'Stockholm Solution' is an urban tree planting system that uses 30% biochar to support urban forest growth.[25] The Qatar Aspire Park uses biochar to help trees cope with intense summer heat[citation needed].

At the 2009 International Biochar Conference, a mobile pyrolysis unit with a specified intake of 1,000 pounds (450 kg) was introduced for agricultural applications.[26]

Thermo-catalytic depolymerization[]

Alternatively, "thermo-catalytic depolymerization", which utilizes microwaves, has recently been used to efficiently convert organic matter to biochar on an industrial scale, producing ≈50% char.[27][28]

Properties[]

The physical and chemical properties of biochars as determined by feedstocks and technologies are crucial. Characterization data explain their performance in a specific use. For example, guidelines published by the International Biochar Initiative provide standardized evaluation methods.[1] Properties can be categorized in several respects, including the proximate and elemental composition, pH value, and porosity. The atomic ratios of biochar, including H/C and O/C, correlate with the properties that are relevant to organic content, such as polarity and aromaticity.[29] A van-Krevelen diagram can show the evolution of biochar atomic ratios in the production process.[30] In the carbonization process, both the H/C and O/C ratios decrease due to the release of functional groups that contain hydrogen and oxygen.[31]

Applications[]

Carbon sink[]

See also: Climate engineering

Biomass burning and natural decomposition releases large amounts of carbon dioxide and methane to the Earth's atmosphere. The biochar production process also releases CO2 (up to 50% of the biomass), however, the remaining carbon content becomes indefinitely stable.[32] Biochar carbon remains in the ground for centuries, slowing the growth in atmospheric greenhouse gas levels. Simultaneously, its presence in the earth can improve water quality, increase soil fertility, raise agricultural productivity, and reduce pressure on old-growth forests.[33]

Biochar can sequester carbon in the soil for hundreds to thousands of years, like coal.[34][35][36][37][38] This technique is advocated by scientists including James Hansen[39] and James Lovelock.[40]

Researchers have estimated that sustainable use of biochar could reduce the global net emissions of carbon dioxide (CO
2), methane, and nitrous oxide by up to 1.8 Pg CO
2-C equivalent (CO
2-Ce) per year (12% of current anthropogenic CO
2-Ce emissions), and total net emissions over the course of the next century by 130 Pg CO
2-Ce, without endangering food security, habitats, or soil conservation.[41]

The price that might make it worthwhile for bioenergy firms to produce biochar for carbon sequestration[42] has been estimated at $37/ton.[42] Carbon credits from biochar sequestration could allow bioenergy firms to meet potential sequestration requirements without disrupting production processes.[20][43]

Soil amendment[]

Biochar in a white tarp
Biochar in preparation as a soil amendment

Biochar offers multiple soil health benefits. Its porous nature is effective at retaining both water and water-soluble nutrients. Soil biologist Elaine Ingham highlighted its suitability as a habitat for beneficial soil micro organisms.[44] She pointed out that when pre-charged with these beneficial organisms, biochar becomes promotes good soil, and plant health.

Biochar reduces leaching of E-coli through sandy soils depending on application rate, feedstock, pyrolysis temperature, soil moisture content, soil texture, and surface properties of the bacteria.[45][46][47]

For plants that require high potash and elevated pH,[48] biochar can improve yield.[49]

Biochar can improve water quality, reduce soil emissions of greenhouse gases, reduce nutrient leaching, reduce soil acidity, and reduce irrigation and fertilizer requirements.[50] Under certain circumstances biochar induces plant systemic responses to foliar fungal diseases and to improve plant responses to diseases caused by soilborne pathogens.[51][52][53]

Biochar's impacts are dependent on its properties,[54] as well as the amount applied,[53] although knowledge about the important mechanisms and properties is limited.[55] Biochar impact may depend on regional conditions including soil type, soil condition (depleted or healthy), temperature, and humidity.[56] Modest additions of biochar reduce nitrous oxide (N
2O)[57] emissions by up to 80% and eliminate methane emissions, which are both more potent greenhouse gases than CO
2.[58]

Studies reported positive effects from biochar on crop production in degraded and nutrient–poor soils.[59] The application of compost and biochar under FP7 project FERTIPLUS had positive effects on soil humidity, crop productivity and quality in multiple countries.[60] Biochar can be adapted with specific qualities to target distinct soil properties.[61] In Colombian savanna soil, biochar reduced leaching of critical nutrients, created a higher nutrient uptake, and provided greater nutrient availability.[62] At 10% levels biochar reduced contaminant levels in plants by up to 80%, while reducing chlordane and DDX content in the plants by 68 and 79%, respectively.[63] However, because of its high adsorption capacity, biochar may reduce pesticide efficacy.[64][65] High-surface-area biochars may be particularly problematic.[64]

Biochar may be ploughed into soils in crop fields to enhance their fertility and stability, and for medium- to long-term carbon sequestration in these soils. It has meant a remarkable improvement in tropical soils showing positive effects in increasing soil fertility and in improving disease resistance in West European Soils.[60]

One study reported that biochar helps build soil carbon by an average 3.8%.

Application rates of 2.5–20 tonnes per hectare (1.0–8.1 t/acre) appear to be required to produce significant improvements in plant yields. Biochar costs in developed countries vary from $300–7000/tonne, generally impractical for the farmer/horticulturalist and prohibitive for low-input field crops. In developing countries, constraints on agricultural biochar relate more to biomass availability and production time. A compromise is to use small amounts of biochar in lower cost biochar-fertilizer complexes.[66]

Slash-and-char[]

Switching from slash-and-burn to slash-and-char farming techniques in Brazil can decrease both deforestation of the Amazon basin and carbon dioxide emission, as well as increase crop yields. Slash-and-burn leaves only 3% of the carbon from the organic material in the soil.[67] Slash-and-char can retain up to 50%.[68] Biochar reduces the need for nitrogen fertilizers, thereby reducing cost and emissions from fertilizer production and transport.[69] Additionally, by improving soil's till-ability, its fertility and its productivity, biochar-enhanced soils can indefinitely sustain agricultural production, whereas slash/burn soils quickly become depleted of nutrients, forcing farmers to abandon the fields, producing a continuous slash and burn cycle. Using pyrolysis to produce bio-energy does not require infrastructure changes the way, e.g., processing biomass for cellulosic ethanol does. Additionally, biochar can be applied by the widely-used machinery.[70]

Water retention[]

Biochar is hygroscopic due to its porous structure and high specific surface area.[71] As a result, fertilizer and other nutrients are retained for plants' benefit.

Energy production: bio-oil and syngas[]

Main article: Biofuel

Along with biochar, pyrolysis produces renewable energy in the form of bio-oil and syngas. Bio-oil contains organic acids that are corrosive to steel containers, has a high water vapor content that is detrimental to ignition, and, unless carefully cleaned, contains biochar particles which can block injectors.[72] Currently, it is less suitable for use as a kind of biodiesel than other sources.

Biochar used for the production of energy rather than as a soil amendment can be directly substituted for coal. Pyrolysis may be the most cost-effective way of electricity generation from biomaterial.[73]

Pyrolysis of forest- or agriculture-derived biomass generates does not compete with crop production.

Biomass production to obtain biofuels and biochar for carbon sequestration in the soil is a carbon-negative process, i.e. more CO
2 is removed from the atmosphere than released, thus enabling long-term sequestration.[74]

Stock fodder[]

A Western Australian farmer explored the use of biochar mixed with molasses as stock fodder. He asserted that in ruminants, biochar can assist digestion and reduce methane production. The farmer also used dung beetles to work the resulting biochar-infused dung into the soil without using machinery. The nitrogen and carbon in the dung are both incorporated into the soil rather than staying on the soil surface, reducing the production of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide. The nitrogen and carbon add to soil fertility. On-farm evidence indicates that the fodder led to improvements of liveweight gain in Angus-cross cattle.[75]

Doug Pow won the Australian Government Innovation in Agriculture Land Management Award at the 2019 Western Australian Landcare Awards for this innovation.[76][75] Pow's work led to two further trials on dairy cattle, yielding reduced odour and increased milk production.[77]

Research[]

Research into aspects involving pyrolysis/biochar is underway around the world. From 2005 to 2012, 1,038 articles included the word "biochar" or "bio-char" in the topic indexed in the ISI Web of Science.[78] Research is in progress by Cornell University, University of Edinburgh (which has a dedicated research unit),[79] University of Georgia,[80][81] the Agricultural Research Organization (ARO) of Israel, Volcani Center,[82] and University of Delaware.

Long-term effects of biochar on C sequestration has been examined using soil from arable fields in Belgium with charcoal-enriched black spots dating from before 1870 from charcoal production mound kilns. Topsoils from these 'black spots' had a higher organic C concentration [3.6 ± 0.9% organic carbon (OC)] than adjacent soils outside these black spots (2.1 ± 0.2% OC). The soils had been cropped with maize for at least 12 years which provided a continuous input of C with a C isotope signature (δ13C) −13.1, distinct from the δ13C of soil organic carbon (−27.4 ‰) and charcoal (−25.7 ‰) collected in the surrounding area. The isotope signatures in the soil revealed that maize-derived C concentration was significantly higher in charcoal-amended samples ('black spots') than in adjacent unamended ones (0.44% vs. 0.31%; p = 0.02). Topsoils were subsequently collected as a gradient across two 'black spots' along with corresponding adjacent soils outside these black spots and soil respiration, and physical soil fractionation was conducted. Total soil respiration (130 days) was unaffected by charcoal, but the maize-derived C respiration per unit maize-derived OC in soil significantly decreased about half (p < 0.02) with increasing charcoal-derived C in soil. Maize-derived C was proportionally present more in protected soil aggregates in the presence of charcoal. The lower specific mineralization and increased C sequestration of recent C with charcoal are attributed to a combination of physical protection, C saturation of microbial communities and, potentially, slightly higher annual primary production. Overall, this study evidences the capacity of biochar to enhance C sequestration through reduced C turnover.[83]

Biochar sequesters carbon (C) in soils because of its prolonged residence time, ranging from years to millennia. In addition, biochar can promote indirect C-sequestration by increasing crop yield while, potentially, reducing C-mineralization. Laboratory studies have evidenced effects of biochar on C-mineralization using 13
C signatures.[84]

Fluorescence analysis of biochar-amended soil dissolved organic matter revealed that biochar application increased a humic-like fluorescent component, likely associated with biochar-carbon in solution. The combined spectroscopy-microscopy approach revealed the accumulation of aromatic-carbon in discrete spots in the solid-phase of microaggregates and its co-localization with clay minerals for soil amended with raw residue or biochar. The co-localization of aromatic-C:polysaccharides-C was consistently reduced upon biochar application. These finding suggested that reduced C metabolism is an important mechanism for C stabilization in biochar-amended soils.[85]

Students at Stevens Institute of Technology in New Jersey are developing supercapacitors that use biochar electrodes.[86] A process developed by University of Florida researchers that removes phosphate from water also yields methane gas usable as fuel and phosphate-laden carbon suitable for enriching soil.[87] Researchers at University of Auckland are working on utilizing biochar in concrete applications to reduce carbon emissions during concrete production and to improve strength.[88] Biochar can be used as a suitable filler in a polymer matrix.[89] Biochar-starch bio-composites were prepared[90] and their nano-mechanical behaviours were investigated using dynamic atomic force microscopy.[91] The agglomeration behaviour of biochar in polypropylene was investigated using micro-CT studies.[92]

Research and practical investigations into the potential of biochar for coarse soils in semi-arid and degraded ecosystems are ongoing. In Namibia biochar is under exploration as climate change adaptation effort, strengthening local communities' drought resilience and food security through the local production and application of biochar from abundant encroacher biomass.[93]

See also[]

Notes[]

  1. ^ Jump up to: a b "Standardized production definition and product testing guidelines for biochar that is used in soil" (PDF). 2015. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
  2. ^ Jump up to: a b Lean, Geoffrey (7 December 2008). "Ancient skills 'could reverse global warming'". The Independent. Archived from the original on 13 September 2011. Retrieved 1 October 2011.
  3. ^ Yousaf, Balal; Liu, Guijian; Wang, Ruwei; Abbas, Qumber; Imtiaz, Muhammad; Liu, Ruijia (2016). "Investigating the biochar effects on C-mineralization and sequestration of carbon in soil compared with conventional amendments using stable isotope (δ13C) approach". Global Change Biology Bioenergy. 9 (6): 1085–1099. doi:10.1111/gcbb.12401.
  4. ^ "Geoengineering the climate: science, governance and uncertainty". The Royal Society. 2009. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
  5. ^ Dominic Woolf; James E. Amonette; F. Alayne Street-Perrott; Johannes Lehmann; Stephen Joseph (August 2010). "Sustainable biochar to mitigate global climate change". Nature Communications. 1 (5): 56. Bibcode:2010NatCo...1E..56W. doi:10.1038/ncomms1053. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 2964457. PMID 20975722.
  6. ^ Constanze Werner, Hans-Peter Schmidt, Dieter Gerten, Wolfgang Lucht und Claudia Kammann (2018). Biogeochemical potential of biomass pyrolysis systems for limiting global warming to 1.5 °C. Environmental Research Letters, 13(4), 044036. doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aabb0e
  7. ^ "Slash and Char". Retrieved 19 September 2014.
  8. ^ "biochar". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  9. ^ Solomon, Dawit; Lehmann, Johannes; Thies, Janice; Schäfer, Thorsten; Liang, Biqing; Kinyangi, James; Neves, Eduardo; Petersen, James; Luizão, Flavio; Skjemstad, Jan (May 2007). "Molecular signature and sources of biochemical recalcitrance of organic C in Amazonian Dark Earths". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 71 (9): 2285–2298. Bibcode:2007GeCoA..71.2285S. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2007.02.014. ISSN 0016-7037. "Amazonian Dark Earths (ADE) are a unique type of soils apparently developed between 500 and 9000 years B.P. through intense anthropogenic activities such as biomass-burning and high-intensity nutrient depositions on pre-Columbian Amerindian settlements that transformed the original soils into Fimic Anthrosols throughout the Brazilian Amazon Basin
  10. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Lehmann 2007a, pp. 381–387 Similar soils are found, more scarcely, elsewhere in the world. To date, scientists have been unable to completely reproduce the beneficial growth properties of terra preta. It is hypothesized that part of the alleged benefits of terra preta require the biochar to be aged so that it increases the cation exchange capacity of the soil, among other possible effects. In fact, there is no evidence natives made biochar for soil treatment, but rather for transportable fuel charcoal; there is little evidence for any hypothesis accounting for the frequency and location of terra preta patches in Amazonia. Abandoned or forgotten charcoal pits left for centuries were eventually reclaimed by the forest. In that time, the initially harsh negative effects of the char (high pH, extreme ash content, salinity) wore off and turned positive as the forest soil ecosystem saturated the charcoals with nutrients. supra note 2 at 386 ("Only aged biochar shows high cation retention, as in Amazonian Dark Earths. At high temperatures (30–70 °C), cation retention occurs within a few months. The production method that would attain high CEC in soil in cold climates is not currently known.") (internal citations omitted).
  11. ^ Glaser, Lehmann & Zech 2002, pp. 219–220 "These so-called Terra Preta do Indio (Terra Preta) characterize the settlements of pre-Columbian Indios. In Terra Preta soils large amounts of black C indicate a high and prolonged input of carbonized organic matter probably due to the production of charcoal in hearths, whereas only low amounts of charcoal are added to soils as a result of forest fires and slash-and-burn techniques." (internal citations omitted)
  12. ^ Jean-François Ponge; Stéphanie Topoliantz; Sylvain Ballof; Jean-Pierre Rossi; Patrick Lavelle; Jean-Marie Betsch; Philippe Gaucher (2006). "Ingestion of charcoal by the Amazonian earthworm Pontoscolex corethrurus: a potential for tropical soil fertility" (PDF). Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 38 (7): 2008–2009. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2005.12.024.
  13. ^ Tripathi, Manoj; Sabu, J.N.; Ganesan, P. (21 November 2015). "Effect of process parameters on production of biochar from biomass waste through pyrolysis: A review". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 55: 467–481. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.122. ISSN 1364-0321.
  14. ^ Gaunt & Lehmann 2008, pp. 4152, 4155 ("Assuming that the energy in syngas is converted to electricity with an efficiency of 35%, the recovery in the life cycle energy balance ranges from 92 to 274 kg CO2 MWn−1 of electricity generated where the pyrolysis process is optimized for energy and 120 to 360 kg CO
    2     MWn−1 where biochar is applied to land. This compares to emissions of 600–900 kg CO
    2     MWh−1 for fossil-fuel-based technologies.)
  15. ^ Jump up to: a b Winsley, Peter (2007). "Biochar and bioenergy production for climate change mitigation". New Zealand Science Review. 64. (See Table 1 for differences in output for Fast, Intermediate, Slow, and Gasification).
  16. ^ Aysu, Tevfik; Küçük, M. Maşuk (16 December 2013). "Biomass pyrolysis in a fixed-bed reactor: Effects of pyrolysis parameters on product yields and characterization of products". Energy. 64 (1): 1002–1025. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2013.11.053. ISSN 0360-5442.
  17. ^ Laird 2008, pp. 100, 178–181 "The energy required to operate a fast pyrolyzer is ∼15% of the total energy that can be derived from the dry biomass. Modern systems are designed to use the syngas generated by the pyrolyzer to provide all the energy needs of the pyrolyzer."
  18. ^ Kambo, Harpreet Singh; Dutta, Animesh (14 February 2015). "A comparative review of biochar and hydrochar in terms of production, physicochemical properties and applications". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 45: 359–378. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.01.050. ISSN 1364-0321.
  19. ^ Lee, Jechan; Sarmah, Ajit K.; Kwon, Eilhann E. (2019). Biochar from biomass and waste - Fundamentals and applications. Elsevier. pp. 1–462. doi:10.1016/C2016-0-01974-5. hdl:10344/443. ISBN 978-0-12-811729-3.
  20. ^ Jump up to: a b Crowe, Robert (31 October 2011). "Could Biomass Technology Help Commercialize Biochar?". Renewable Energy World. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
  21. ^ Menezes, Bruna Rafaela da Silva; Daher, Rogério Figueiredo; Gravina, Geraldo de Amaral; Pereira, Antônio Vander; Pereira, Messias Gonzaga; Tardin, Flávio Dessaune (20 September 2016). "Combining ability in elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schum.) for energy biomass production" (PDF). Australian Journal of Crop Science. 10 (9): 1297–1305. doi:10.21475/ajcs.2016.10.09.p7747.
  22. ^ "Production Quantity Of Sugar Cane In Brazil In 2006". FAOSTAT. 2006. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2008.
  23. ^ "06/00891 Assessment of sustainable energy potential of non-plantation biomass resources in Sri Lanka". Fuel and Energy Abstracts. 47 (2): 131. March 2006. doi:10.1016/s0140-6701(06)80893-3. ISSN 0140-6701. (showing RPRs for numerous plants, describing method for determining available agricultural waste for energy and char production).
  24. ^ Laird 2008, pp. 179 "Much of the current scientific debate on the harvesting of biomass for bioenergy is focused on how much can be harvested without doing too much damage."
  25. ^ O'Sullivan, Feargus (20 December 2016). "Stockholm's Ingenious Plan to Recycle Yard Waste". Citylab. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
  26. ^ Austin, Anna (October 2009). "A New Climate Change Mitigation Tool". Biomass Magazine. BBI International. Retrieved 30 October 2009.
  27. ^ Karagöz, Selhan; Bhaskar, Thallada; Muto, Akinori; Sakata, Yusaku; Oshiki, Toshiyuki; Kishimoto, Tamiya (1 April 2005). "Low-temperature catalytic hydrothermal treatment of wood biomass: analysis of liquid products". Chemical Engineering Journal. 108 (1–2): 127–137. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2005.01.007. ISSN 1385-8947.
  28. ^ Jha, Alok (13 March 2009). "'Biochar' goes industrial with giant microwaves to lock carbon in charcoal". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
  29. ^ Crombie, Kyle; Mašek, Ondřej; Sohi, Saran P.; Brownsort, Peter; Cross, Andrew (21 December 2012). "The effect of pyrolysis conditions on biochar stability as determined by three methods" (PDF). Global Change Biology Bioenergy. 5 (2): 122–131. doi:10.1111/gcbb.12030. ISSN 1757-1707. S2CID 54693411.
  30. ^ Krevelen D., van (1950). "Graphical-statistical method for the study of structure and reaction processes of coal". Fuel. 29: 269–284.
  31. ^ Weber, Kathrin; Quicker, Peter (1 April 2018). "Properties of biochar". Fuel. 217: 240–261. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2017.12.054. ISSN 0016-2361.
  32. ^ Woolf, Dominic; Amonette, James E.; Street-Perrott, F. Alayne; Lehmann, Johannes; Joseph, Stephen (10 August 2010). "Sustainable biochar to mitigate global climate change". Nature Communications. 1 (5): 56. Bibcode:2010NatCo...1...56W. doi:10.1038/ncomms1053. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 2964457. PMID 20975722.
  33. ^ Laird 2008, pp. 100, 178–181
  34. ^ Lehmann, Johannes. "Terra Preta de Indio". Soil Biochemistry (Internal Citations Omitted). Not only do biochar-enriched soils contain more carbon - 150gC/kg compared to 20-30gC/kg in surrounding soils - but biochar-enriched soils are, on average, more than twice as deep as surrounding soils.[citation needed]
  35. ^ Lehmann 2007b "this sequestration can be taken a step further by heating the plant biomass without oxygen (a process known as low-temperature pyrolysis)."
  36. ^ Lehmann 2007a, pp. 381, 385 "pyrolysis produces 3–9 times more energy than is invested in generating the energy. At the same time, about half of the carbon can be sequestered in soil. The total carbon stored in these soils can be one order of magnitude higher than adjacent soils.
  37. ^ Winsley, Peter (2007). "Biochar and Bioenergy Production for Climate Change Mitigation" (PDF). New Zealand Science Review. 64 (5): 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
  38. ^ Kern, DC; de LP Ruivo, M; Frazão, FJL (2009), "Terra Preta Nova: The Dream of Wim Sombroek", Amazonian Dark Earths: Wim Sombroek's Vision, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 339–349, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9031-8_18, ISBN 978-1-4020-9030-1, retrieved 9 August 2021
  39. ^ Hamilton, Tyler (22 June 2009). "Sole option is to adapt, climate author says". The Star. Toronto.
  40. ^ Vince 2009
  41. ^ Woolf, Dominic; Amonette, James E.; Street-Perrott, F. Alayne; Lehmann, Johannes; Joseph, Stephen (2010). "Sustainable biochar to mitigate global climate change". Nature Communications. 1 (5): 1–9. Bibcode:2010NatCo...1...56W. doi:10.1038/ncomms1053. PMC 2964457. PMID 20975722.
  42. ^ Jump up to: a b Lehmann 2007b, pp. 143, 144.
  43. ^ "Biochar and Renewable Energy from Biomass | US Biochar Initiative". biochar-us.org. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
  44. ^ "Interview with Dr Elaine Ingham - NEEDFIRE". 17 February 2015. Archived from the original on 17 February 2015. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
  45. ^ Bolster, C.H.; Abit, S.M. (2012). "Biochar pyrolyzed at two temperatures affects Escherichia coli transport through a sandy soil". Journal of Environmental Quality. 41 (1): 124–133. doi:10.2134/jeq2011.0207. PMID 22218181. S2CID 1689197.
  46. ^ Abit, S.M.; Bolster, C.H.; Cai, P.; Walker, S.L. (2012). "Influence of feedstock and pyrolysis temperature of biochar amendments on transport of Escherichia coli in saturated and unsaturated soil". Environmental Science & Technology. 46 (15): 8097–8105. Bibcode:2012EnST...46.8097A. doi:10.1021/es300797z. PMID 22738035.
  47. ^ Abit, S.M.; Bolster, C.H.; Cantrell, K.B.; Flores, J.Q.; Walker, S.L. (2014). "Transport of Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and microspheres in biochar-amended soils with different textures". Journal of Environmental Quality. 43 (1): 371–378. doi:10.2134/jeq2013.06.0236. PMID 25602571.
  48. ^ Lehmann, Johannes; Pereira da Silva, Jose; Steiner, Christoph; Nehls, Thomas; Zech, Wolfgang; Glaser, Bruno (1 February 2003). "Nutrient availability and leaching in an archaeological Anthrosol and a Ferralsol of the Central Amazon basin: fertilizer, manure and charcoal amendments". Plant and Soil. 249 (2): 343–357. doi:10.1023/A:1022833116184. ISSN 1573-5036. S2CID 2420708.
  49. ^ Tenic, E.; Ghogare, R.; Dhingra, A. (2020). "Biochar—A Panacea for Agriculture or Just Carbon?". Horticulturae. 6 (3): 37. doi:10.3390/horticulturae6030037.
  50. ^ "06/00595 Economical CO
    2    , SO
    x    , and NO
    x     capture from fossil-fuel utilization with combined renewable hydrogen production and large-scale carbon sequestration"    . Fuel and Energy Abstracts. 47 (2): 92. March 2006. doi:10.1016/s0140-6701(06)80597-7. ISSN 0140-6701.
  51. ^ Elad, Y.; Rav David, D.; Meller Harel, Y.; Borenshtein, M.; Kalifa Hananel, B.; Silber, A.; Graber, E.R. (2010). "Induction of systemic resistance in plants by biochar, a soil-applied carbon sequestering agent". Phytopathology. 100 (9): 913–921. doi:10.1094/phyto-100-9-0913. PMID 20701489.
  52. ^ Meller Harel, Yael; Elad, Yigal; Rav-David, Dalia; Borenstein, Menachem; Shulchani, Ran; Lew, Beni; Graber, Ellen R. (25 February 2012). "Biochar mediates systemic response of strawberry to foliar fungal pathogens". Plant and Soil. 357 (1–2): 245–257. doi:10.1007/s11104-012-1129-3. ISSN 0032-079X. S2CID 16186999.
  53. ^ Jump up to: a b Jaiswal, A.K.; Elad, Y.; Graber, E.R.; Frenkel, O. (2014). "Rhizoctonia solani suppression and plant growth promotion in cucumber as affected by biochar pyrolysis temperature, feedstock and concentration". Soil Biology and Biochemistry. 69: 110–118. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2013.10.051.
  54. ^ Silber, A.; Levkovitch, I.; Graber, E. R. (2010). "pH-dependent mineral release and surface properties of cornstraw biochar: Agronomic implications". Environmental Science & Technology. 44 (24): 9318–9323. Bibcode:2010EnST...44.9318S. doi:10.1021/es101283d. PMID 21090742.
  55. ^ Glaser, Lehmann & Zech 2002, pp. 224 note 7 "Three main factors influence the properties of charcoal: (1) the type of organic matter used for charring, (2) the charring environment (e.g. temperature, air), and (3) additions during the charring process. The source of charcoal material strongly influences the direct effects of charcoal amendments on nutrient contents and availability."
  56. ^ Dr. Wardle points out that improved plant growth has been observed in tropical (depleted) soils by referencing Lehmann, but that in the boreal (high native soil organic matter content) forest this experiment was run in, it accelerated the native soil organic matter loss. Wardle, supra note 18. ("Although several studies have recognized the potential of black C for enhancing ecosystem carbon sequestration, our results show that these effects can be partially offset by its capacity to stimulate loss of native soil C, at least for boreal forests.") (internal citations omitted) (emphasis added).
  57. ^ "Biochar decreased N2O emissions from soils. [Social Impact]. FERTIPLUS. Reducing mineral fertilisers and agro-chemicals by recycling treated organic waste as compost and biochar products (2011-2015). Framework Programme 7 (FP7)". SIOR, Social Impact Open Repository. Archived from the original on 5 September 2017.
  58. ^ Lehmann 2007a, pp. note 3 at 384 "In greenhouse experiments, NOx emissions were reduced by 80% and methane emissions were completely suppressed with biochar additions of 20 g kg-1 (2%) to a forage grass stand."
  59. ^ "Biochar fact sheet". csiro.au. Retrieved 2 September 2016.
  60. ^ Jump up to: a b "Improvement of soil quality. [Social Impact]. FERTIPLUS. Reducing mineral fertilisers and agro-chemicals by recycling treated organic waste as compost and biochar products (2011-2015). Framework Programme 7 (FP7)". SIOR. Social Impact Open Repository. Archived from the original on 5 September 2017.
  61. ^ Novak, Jeff. "Development of Designer Biochar to Remediate Specific Chemical and Physical Aspects of Degraded Soils. Proc. of North American Biochar Conference 2009". www.ars.usda.gov. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
  62. ^ Major, Julie; Rondon, Marco; Molina, Diego; Riha, Susan J.; Lehmann, Johannes (July 2012). "Nutrient Leaching in a Colombian Savanna Oxisol Amended with Biochar". Journal of Environmental Quality. 41 (4): 1076–1086. doi:10.2134/jeq2011.0128. ISSN 0047-2425. PMID 22751049.
  63. ^ Elmer, Wade, Jason C. White, and Joseph J. Pignatello. Impact of Biochar Addition to Soil on the Bioavailability of Chemicals Important in Agriculture. Rep. New Haven: University of Connecticut, 2009. Print.
  64. ^ Jump up to: a b Graber, E. R.; Tsechansky, L.; Gerstl, Z.; Lew, B. (15 October 2011). "High surface area biochar negatively impacts herbicide efficacy". Plant and Soil. 353 (1–2): 95–106. doi:10.1007/s11104-011-1012-7. ISSN 0032-079X. S2CID 14875062.
  65. ^ Graber, E. R.; Tsechansky, L.; Khanukov, J.; Oka, Y. (July 2011). "Sorption, Volatilization, and Efficacy of the Fumigant 1,3-Dichloropropene in a Biochar-Amended Soil". Soil Science Society of America Journal. 75 (4): 1365–1373. Bibcode:2011SSASJ..75.1365G. doi:10.2136/sssaj2010.0435. ISSN 0361-5995.
  66. ^ Joseph, S; Graber, ER; Chia, C; Munroe, P; Donne, S; Thomas, T; Nielsen, S; Marjo, C; Rutlidge, H; Pan, GX; Li, L (June 2013). "Shifting paradigms: development of high-efficiency biochar fertilizers based on nano-structures and soluble components". Carbon Management. 4 (3): 323–343. doi:10.4155/cmt.13.23. ISSN 1758-3004. S2CID 51741928.
  67. ^ Glaser, Lehmann & Zech 2002, pp. note 7 at 225 "The published data average at about 3% charcoal formation of the original biomass C."
  68. ^ Lehmann, Johannes; Gaunt, John; Rondon, Marco (March 2006). "Bio-char Sequestration in Terrestrial Ecosystems – A Review". Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. 11 (2): 403–427. doi:10.1007/s11027-005-9006-5. ISSN 1381-2386. S2CID 4696862. supra note 11 at 407 ("If this woody above ground biomass were converted into biochar by means of simple kiln techniques and applied to soil, more than 50% of this carbon would be sequestered in a highly stable form.")
  69. ^ Gaunt & Lehmann 2008, pp. 4152 note 3 ("This results in increased crop yields in low-input agriculture and increased crop yield per unit of fertilizer applied (fertilizer efficiency) in high-input agriculture as well as reductions in off-site effects such as runoff, erosion, and gaseous losses.")
  70. ^ Lehmann 2007b, pp. note 9 at 143 "It can be mixed with manures or fertilizers and included in no-tillage methods, without the need for additional equipment."
  71. ^ Ricigliano, Kristin (2011). "Terra Pretas: Charcoal Amendments Influence on Relict Soils and Modern Agriculture". Journal of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Education. 40 (1): 69–72. doi:10.4195/jnrlse.2011.0001se. ISSN 1059-9053.
  72. ^ Yaman, Serdar, pyrolysis of biomass to produce fuels and chemical feedstocks, 45 Energy Conversion & MGMT 651, 659 (2003).
  73. ^ Bridgwater, A.V.; Toft, A.J.; Brammer, J.G. (September 2002). "A techno-economic comparison of power production by biomass fast pyrolysis with gasification and combustion". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 6 (3): 181–246. doi:10.1016/s1364-0321(01)00010-7. ISSN 1364-0321. the fast pyrolysis and diesel engine system is clearly the most economic of the novel systems at scales up to 15 MWe
  74. ^ Cornet, A.; Escadafal, R. "Is biochar "green"? - CSFD - French Scientific Committee on Desertification". www.csf-desertification.eu. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
  75. ^ Jump up to: a b Daly, Jon (18 October 2019). "Poo-eating beetles and charcoal used by WA farmer to combat climate change". ABC.net.au. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 18 October 2019. Mr Pow said his innovative farming system could help livestock producers become more profitable while helping to address the impact of climate change.
  76. ^ "2019 State & Territory Landcare Awards Celebrate Outstanding Landcare Champions". Landcare Australia. Landcare Australia. 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2019.
  77. ^ "Manjimup farmer employing dung beetle to tackle climate-change set to represent WA on national stage". Landcare Australia. Landcare Australia. October 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2019.
  78. ^ Verheijen, F.G.A.; Graber, E.R.; Ameloot, N.; Bastos, A.C.; Sohi, S.; Knicker, H. (2014). "Biochars in soils: new insights and emerging research needs". European Journal of Soil Science. 65: 22–27. doi:10.1111/ejss.12127. hdl:10261/93245.
  79. ^ "UK Biochar Research Centre". The University of Edinburgh. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
  80. ^ "Can Biochar save the planet?". CNN. Retrieved 10 March 2009.
  81. ^ "Biochar nearly doubles peanut yield in student's research - News and Events". ftfpeanutlab.caes.uga.edu. Innovation Lab for Peanut. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
  82. ^ "iBRN Israel Biochar Research Network". sites.google.com. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
  83. ^ Hernandez-Soriano, Maria C.; Kerré, Bart; Goos, Peter; Hardy, Brieuc; Dufey, Joseph; Smolders, Erik (2016). "Long-term effect of biochar on the stabilization of recent carbon: soils with historical inputs of charcoal". GCB Bioenergy. 8 (2): 371–381. doi:10.1111/gcbb.12250. ISSN 1757-1707. S2CID 86006012.
  84. ^ Kerré, Bart; Hernandez-Soriano, Maria C.; Smolders, Erik (15 March 2016). "Partitioning of carbon sources among functional pools to investigate short-term priming effects of biochar in soil: A 13C study". Science of the Total Environment. 547: 30–38. Bibcode:2016ScTEn.547...30K. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.107. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 26780129.
  85. ^ Hernandez-Soriano, Maria C.; Kerré, Bart; Kopittke, Peter M.; Horemans, Benjamin; Smolders, Erik (26 April 2016). "Biochar affects carbon composition and stability in soil: a combined spectroscopy-microscopy study". Scientific Reports. 6 (1): 25127. Bibcode:2016NatSR...625127H. doi:10.1038/srep25127. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4844975. PMID 27113269.
  86. ^ "A Cheaper, Greener Material for Supercapacitors". Stevens Institute of Technology. 2011. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
  87. ^ "Biochar" More Effective, Cheaper at Removing Phosphate from Water". University of Florida. 2011. Retrieved 18 May 2011.
  88. ^ Akhtar, A.; Sarmah, A. K. (2018). "Strength improvement of recycled aggregate concrete through silicon rich char derived from organic waste". Journal of Cleaner Production. 196: 411–423. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.044.
  89. ^ Poulose, Anesh Manjaly; Elnour, Ahmed Yagoub; Anis, Arfat; Shaikh, Hamid; Al-Zahrani, S.M.; George, Justin; Al-Wabel, Mohammad I.; Usman, Adel R.; Ok, Yong Sik; Tsang, Daniel C.W.; Sarmah, Ajit K. (April 2018). "Date palm biochar-polymer composites: An investigation of electrical, mechanical, thermal and rheological characteristics". Science of the Total Environment. 619–620: 311–318. Bibcode:2018ScTEn.619..311P. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.076. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 29154049.
  90. ^ Bartoli, Mattia; Giorcelli, Mauro; Jagdale, Pravin; Rovere, Massimo; Tagliaferro, Alberto (7 January 2020). "A Review of Non-Soil Biochar Applications". Materials. 13 (2): 261. Bibcode:2020Mate...13..261B. doi:10.3390/ma13020261. ISSN 1996-1944. PMC 7013903. PMID 31936099.
  91. ^ George, Justin; Azad, Lal B.; Poulose, Anesh M.; An, Yiran; Sarmah, Ajit K. (September 2019). "Nano-mechanical behaviour of biochar-starch polymer composite: Investigation through advanced dynamic atomic force microscopy". Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 124: 105486. doi:10.1016/j.compositesa.2019.105486. ISSN 1359-835X.
  92. ^ George, J.; Bhattacharyya, D. (2021). "Biocarbon reinforced polypropylene composite: An investigation of mechanical and filler behavior through advanced dynamic atomic force microscopy and X-ray micro CT". Express Polymer Letters. 15 (3): 224–235. arXiv:2106.04798. doi:10.3144/expresspolymlett.2021.20. S2CID 235377307.
  93. ^ De-bushing Advisory Service Namibia (23 September 2020). "Kick-start for Biochar Value Chain: Practical Guidelines for Producers Now Published". De-bushing Advisory Service. Retrieved 24 September 2020.

References[]

  • Ameloot, N.; Graber, E.R.; Verheijen, F.; De Neve, S. (2013). "Effect of soil organisms on biochar stability in soil: Review and research needs". European Journal of Soil Science. 64 (4): 379–390. doi:10.1111/ejss.12064.
  • Aysu, Tevfik; Küçük, M. Maşuk (16 December 2013). "Biomass pyrolysis in a fixed-bed reactor: Effects of pyrolysis parameters on product yields and characterization of products". Energy. 64 (1): 1002–1025. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2013.11.053. ISSN 0360-5442.
  • Badger, Phillip C.; Fransham, Peter (2006). "Use of mobile fast pyrolysis plants to densify biomass and reduce biomass handling costs—A preliminary assessment". Biomass & Bioenergy. 30 (4): 321–325. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2005.07.011.
  • Glaser, Bruno; Lehmann, Johannes; Zech, Wolfgang (2002). "Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal – a review". Biology and Fertility of Soils. 35 (4): 219–230. doi:10.1007/s00374-002-0466-4. S2CID 15437140.

External links[]


Retrieved from ""