Counter-jihad

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Counter-jihad, also spelled counterjihad and known as the counter-jihad movement,[1] is a self-titled political current loosely consisting of authors, bloggers, think tanks, street movements and campaign organisations all linked by apocalyptic beliefs that view Islam not as a religion but as a worldview that constitutes an existential threat to Western civilization. Consequently, Counter-jihadists consider all Muslims as a potential threat, especially when they are already living within Western boundaries.[2] Western Muslims accordingly are portrayed as "fifth column", collectively seeking to destabilize Western nations' identity and values for the benefit of an international Islamic movement intent on the establishment of a caliphate in Western countries.[3][4] The counter-jihad movement has been variously described as anti-Islamic,[5][6][7] Islamophobic,[8][9][10][11] inciting hatred against Muslims,[12] and far-right.[5][11][13] Influential figures in the movement include the far-right anti-Muslim conspiracy theorists Pamela Geller and Robert Spencer.

While the roots of the movement go back to the 1980s, it did not gain significant momentum until after the September 11 attacks in 2001 and the 7 July 2005 London bombings. As far back as 2006, online commentators such as Fjordman were identified as playing a key role in forwarding the nascent counter-jihad ideology.[4] The movement received considerable attention following the lone wolf attacks by right-wing extremist Anders Behring Breivik whose manifesto extensively reproduced the writings of prominent counter-jihad bloggers, and following the emergence of prominent street movements such as the English Defence League (EDL).[4] The movement has adherents both in Europe and in North America. The European wing is more focused on the alleged cultural threat to European traditions stemming from immigrant Muslim populations, while the American wing emphasizes an alleged external threat, essentially terrorist in nature.[5]

Several academic accounts have presented conspiracy theory as a key component of the counter-jihad movement.[14] On a day-to-day level, it seeks to generate outrage at perceived Muslim crimes.[15]

Overview[]

Counter-jihad is a radical right-wing movement[16] that operates, according to Toby Archer, via the "sharing of ideas between Europeans and Americans and daily linking between blogs and websites on both sides of the Atlantic",[17] and, according to Rasmus Fleischer, "calls for a counterjihad against the supposed Islamisation of Europe".[16] While the roots of the movement go back to the 1980s, it did not gain significant momentum until after the September 11 attacks in 2001.[18]

The authors of Right-Wing Populism in Europe: Politics and Discourse describe the movement as heavily relying on two key tactics. "The first is arguing that the most radical Muslims – men like Osama bin Laden – are properly interpreting the Quran, while peaceful moderate Muslims either do not understand their own holy book or are strategically faking their moderation. The second key tactic is to relentlessly attack individuals and organizations that purport to represent moderate Islam...painting them as secret operatives in a grand Muslim scheme to destroy the West".[19]

Benjamin Lee describes the "counter-jihad scene" as one where "Europe and the United States are under threat from an aggressive and politicized Islamic world that is attempting to take over Europe through a process of "Islamification" with the eventual aim of imposing Sharia law. In this process, the threat is characterized by the perceived removal of Christian or Jewish symbols, the imposition of Islamic traditions, and the creation of no-go areas for non-Muslims. The construction of mosques in particular is seen as continued reinforcement of the separation of the Muslim population from the wider populous. As strong as the threatening practices of Muslims in descriptions of the counter jihad are images of a powerless Europe in decline and sliding into decadence, unable to resist Islamic takeover. The idea that European culture in particular is in a state of decline, while a spiritually vigorous East represented by Islam is in the ascendancy in civil society, is a common sentiment in some circles".[4]

Two central counter-jihad themes have been identified:

  • the notion that Islam poses a threat to "Western civilisation", with a particular focus on "Muslims living in Europe", that is, within the European Counterjihad Movement (ECJM), "seen predominantly in terms of immigration",[17] particularly Muslim immigration.[13]
  • a lack of trust in regional, political and economic "elites", with a particular focus against the European Union (EU).[17]

Counter-jihad movement[]

Paul Beliën, member of the board of directors of the International Free Press Society (IFPS) and the editor of Counterjihad blog The Brussels Journal

One of the first organizations of the Counter-jihad movement [CJM], the 910 Group was founded in 2006 and announced on Gates of Vienna, "a principal blog of the CJM since 2004". Its stated purpose was to defend "liberties, human rights, and religious and political freedoms [that] are under assault from extremist groups who believe in Islamist supremacy".[20] By April 2007, the counter-jihad current became visible as a movement operating in northwestern Europe after a "counter-jihad summit", organised by a transatlantic network of anti-Islam bloggers, was held in Copenhagen, Denmark.[citation needed]

In October 2007 a second summit, Counterjihad Brussels 2007, was hosted by the Belgian Flemish-nationalist party Vlaams Belang in the European Parliament building in Brussels, Belgium.[16][21] This conference has been regarded as a crucial event in the movement's history[22] and featured speakers Bat Ye'or[16] and David Littman followed by "country reports" from delegates Paul Beliën and Filip Dewinter (Vlaams Belang, Belgium), Stefan Herre (PI blog, Germany), Nidra Poller (Pajamas Media blog, France), Gerard Batten (UK Independence Party, UK), Ted Ekeroth (Swedish Democrats, Sweden), Lars Hedegaard (International Free Press Society, Denmark), Jens Tomas Anfindsen (HonestThinking blog, Norway), Kenneth Sikorski (Tundra Tabloids blog, Finland), Johannes Jansen (Holland), Adriana Bolchini Gaigher (Lisistrata blog, Italy), Traian Ungureanu (Romania), Elisabeth Sabaditsch-Wolff (Austria), (Czech Republic), with further speeches by Arieh Eldad (Moledet, Israel). Patrick Sookhdeo (Institute for the Study of Islam and Christianity, Barnabas Fund, UK), Dr Marc Cogen (Professor of International Law, Vesalius College, Belgium), Sam Solomon (Islamic Affairs Consultant, Christian Concern), Robert Spencer (Jihad Watch, David Horowitz Freedom Center), Andrew Bostom, and .[23]

A March 2012 counter-jihad conference in Denmark drew 200–300 supporters from throughout Europe. Ten times the number of left-wing protesters staged a counter-demonstration.[24] The 2012 conference in Denmark was claimed by its organisers, the English Defence League, to mark the starting point of a pan-European movement.[25] There have been no CJM conferences since 2013, pointing to a decline in the movement.[20]

Organisation[]

Blogs such as Gates of Vienna, Jihad Watch, Atlas Shrugs, Politically Incorrect, The Brussels Journal are central to the transatlantic Counter-jihad movement (TCJM). Notable figures include: the editors of these blogs, respectively Edward 'Ned' May (pseudonym Baron Bodissey),[17] Robert Spencer; Pamela Geller; ; and Paul Beliën. Notable writers in the Counter-jihad movement are Bat Ye'or, David Horowitz and Fjordman.[5][18][26]

Think tanks such as the International Free Press Society and the David Horowitz Freedom Center have had an important role in providing funds and establishing international links.[27][28] In time, a network of formal organisations has been established, with its main centres in Europe and the United States.[29] A transatlantic umbrella organisation SION was established in 2012.[30]

The International Free Press Society lists representatives from many parts of the counter-jihad spectrum on its board of advisors.[21][31] Eurabia theorist Bat Ye'or is on the board of advisors, while owner of the blog Gates of Vienna, Edward S. May, serves as outreach co-ordinator on its board of directors.[21][32]

American Counter-jihad movement[]

Robert Spencer, joint leader of Stop Islamization of America and editor of counter-jihad blog Jihad Watch

The U.S.-based Stop Islamization of America (SIOA) is led by Pamela Geller and Robert Spencer,[33][34] as a programme under their American Freedom Defense Initiative (AFDI). According to the AFDI website, the initiative aims, among other activities, to:[35]

  • Create state organizations that work towards the initiative's aims at a local level
  • Organize grass root small groups at the local level to fight what it labels "specific Islamic supremacist initiatives" in American cities
  • Build strategic alliances with activist groups in Europe and Israel to engage in open and stealthy counter jihad measures
  • Promote candidates who "fight against the march of Islamic supremacists"
  • Host conferences "that educate Americans about Leftist indoctrination and Islam’s quest for domination"

SIOA has been accused by the Anti-Defamation League of

promot[ing] a conspiratorial anti-Muslim agenda under the guise of fighting radical Islam. The group seeks to rouse public fears by consistently vilifying the Islamic faith and asserting the existence of an Islamic conspiracy to destroy "American" values.[36]

In 2010, a group dubbed "Team B II", patterned after the anti-communist 1970s Team B, published a report titled "Shariah: The Threat to America" which has been cited as influencing the movement's discourse and the public's perception.[37][38]

With the election of Donald Trump to the United States presidency in 2017, some have claimed that the American wing has achieved some influence in the US administration.[38]

European Counter-Jihad Movement[]

The umbrella organization, Stop Islamisation of Europe, was founded by Anders Gravers Pedersen,[39][40][41] who also sits on the board of the Stop Islamisation of Nations.[42] There are numerous affiliated "Stop the islamisation of..." and "Defense Leagues" in several European countries,[29] among them Stop Islamisation of Denmark, Stop Islamisation of Norway, and the English Defence League.

Counter-jihad ideology[]

In the words of Toby Archer, a scholar of political extremism and terrorism,

"Counter-jihad discourse mixes valid concerns about jihad-inspired terrorism with far more complex political issues about immigration to Europe from predominantly Muslim countries. It suggests that there is a threat not just from terrorism carried out by Islamic extremists but from Islam itself. Therefore, by extension, all European Muslims are a threat."[43]

Arun Kundnani, in a report published by the International Centre for Counter-terrorism, writes that the counter-jihad movement has evolved from earlier European far-right movements through a shift from race to values as identity markers: "In moving from neo‐Nazism to counter‐jihadism, the underlying structure of the narrative remains the same." Continuing on this note, he writes that comparing the counter-jihadist worldview to the older, neo-Nazi one, "Muslims have taken the place of blacks and multiculturalists are the new Jews."[27] According to prominent counter-jihadist , writing under the pseudonym Baron Bodissey, the counter-jihadist movement is based on the belief that

"Islam is above all a totalitarian political ideology, sugar-coated with the trappings of a primitive desert religion to help veil its true nature. The publicly stated goal of Islamic theology and political ideology is to impose the rule of Islam over the entire world, and make it part of Dar al-Islam, the 'House of Submission'."[44]

Cas Mudde argues that various conspiracy theories with roots in Bat Ye'or's Eurabia are important to the movement. The main theme of these theories is an allegation that European leaders allow a Muslim dominance of Europe, whether by intention or not, through multicultural policies and lax immigration laws.[33] According to Hope not Hate, counter-jihad discourse has replaced the racist discourse of rightwing, populist and nationalist politics in America and Europe "with the language of cultural and identity wars".[45]

English Defence League rally in Newcastle, UK, 2010

detects a difference between the European and American wings of the movement. The American wing emphasizes an external threat, essentially terrorist in nature. The European wing sees a cultural threat to European traditions stemming from immigrant Muslim populations. While Archer notes that the perceived failure of multi-culturalism is shared across much of the political spectrum, he argues the counter-jihad movement is a particular conservative manifestation of this trend. He acknowledges the movement's conservative defense of human rights and the rule of law but he believes by rejecting progressive policy it rejects much of what Europe is today.[5]

The views of the counter-jihad movement have been criticized as a source of support for the anti-Muslim views of individuals inspired to take violent direct action.[26] Anders Behring Breivik, responsible for the 2011 Norway attacks, published a manifesto explaining his views which drew heavily on the work of counter-jihad bloggers such as Fjordman.[18][46] Daniel Pipes argues that a "close reading of his manifesto suggests" that Breivik wanted to discredit and undermine the movement's dedication to democratic change to further Breivik's "dreamed-for revolution" as the only alternative.[47] Breivik has later identified himself as a fascist and voiced support for neo-Nazis, stating that he had exploited counter-jihad rhetoric in order to protect "ethno-nationalists", and instead start a media drive against what he deemed "anti-nationalist counterjihad"-supporters.[48][49]

Executive director of the Institute of Race Relations, Liz Fekete, has argued that although most of the counter-jihad movement "stops short of advocating violence to achieve their goals", the most extreme parts share much of Breivik's discursive frameworks and vocabulary. She counterposits this with more mainstream counter-jihadists, that warn of Islamisation as a result of naïvety or indecisiveness, whom she identifies as a source of legitimacy for the former.[28]

Theologist and philosopher Marius Timmann Mjaaland has described the role given to Christianity in some parts of the counter-jihad movement and has identified some aspects of the movement's ideology that he says links it to fascism-like conspiracy theories:

  1. The establishment of an allegedly continuous and coherent connection between the present-day conflict between the Christian West and Muslims, whereas analyses based on established historical science will dismiss any such claim as unfounded.
  2. A claim that mainstream politicians and media in Western countries have in effect become internal enemies or "traitors", by respectively allowing the creation of multicultural societies and advocating "Marxism" and "political correctness".
  3. This, in turn, has allowed Muslims to settle in Western lands, and thereby allegedly opened them to attack from within.
  4. And, lastly, a Nietzschean, post-Christian worldview where the distinction between good and evil is given little attention, to the point where Christianity's ideal of "loving one's neighbour" is entirely omitted. Christianity is reduced from a system of belief to an identity marker, and a political mythology is built, that draws heavily on the Crusades.[50]

Counter-jihad has sought to portray Western Muslims as a "fifth column", collectively seeking to destabilize Western nations' identity and values for the benefit of an international Islamic movement intent on the establishment of a caliphate in Western countries.[51] Much of the Eurabia literature and Counter Jihad forums describe taqiyya as a manipulative strategy used by moderate Muslims to infiltrate and eventually overthrow society.[52]

Supporters are often pro-Israel.[4]

Comparison with anti-communism[]

The movement has been compared to the anti-communism of the Cold War. The Southern Poverty Law Center compares both as similar exaggerated threats. "Like the communists that an earlier generation believed to be hiding behind every rock, infiltrated 'Islamist' operatives today are said to be diabolically preparing for a forcible takeover."[53]

See also[]

References[]

Notes

  1. ^ Lee, Benjamin. "Why we fight: Understanding the counter-jihad movement". Religion Compass. 10 (10). The clearest case of violence linked to the CJM is that of Anders Breivik; the commonalities between Breivik and the CJM have been noted by several writers (Kundnani, 2012: 4; Jackson, 2013; Meleagrou-Hitchens & Brun, 2013:2; Goodwin, 2013: 4; Titley, 2013).
  2. ^ Zúquete, José (2018). The Identitarians: The Movement against Globalism and Islam in Europe. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press. pp. 169–170. ISBN 978-0-268-10421-4. OCLC 1055656293.
  3. ^ Akbarzadeh, Shahram; Roose, Joshua M. (September 2011). "Muslims, Multiculturalism and the Question of the Silent Majority". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 31 (3): 309–325. doi:10.1080/13602004.2011.599540. S2CID 145595802.
  4. ^ a b c d e Lee, Benjamin (4 September 2015). "A Day in the "Swamp": Understanding Discourse in the Online Counter-Jihad Nebula" (PDF). Democracy and Security. 11 (3): 248–274. doi:10.1080/17419166.2015.1067612. S2CID 62841363.
  5. ^ a b c d e "Diffus rörelse med muslimer som hatobjekt". Svenska Dagbladet (in Swedish). 3 August 2011. Archived from the original on 5 November 2011. Retrieved 6 August 2011.
  6. ^ "Pentagon suspends "counterjihad" class on Islam". CBS News. 11 May 2012. Archived from the original on 23 June 2012. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
  7. ^ "The Guardian: Far-right anti-Muslim network on rise globally as Breivik trial opens". TheGuardian.com. 14 April 2012. Archived from the original on 5 March 2017. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
  8. ^ Goodwin, Matthew J.; Cutts, David; Janta-Lipinski, Laurence (19 August 2014). "Economic losers, protestors, islamophobes or xenophobes? Predicting public support for a counter-Jihad movement". Political Studies. 64 (1): 4–26. doi:10.1111/1467-9248.12159. S2CID 145753701. Archived from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
  9. ^ Anna-Lena Lodenius. "Risk att Breivik ses som profet". Svenska Dagbladet (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 22 June 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2012.
  10. ^ Mattias Wåg (28 July 2011). "Den nya högerextremismens terroristiska uttryck". Göteborgs fria (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2012.
  11. ^ a b Denes, Nick (2012). "Welcome to the Counterjihad: "Uncivil" Networks and European Social Space" (PDF). Dahrendorf Symposia Series. Berlin: Dahrendorf Symposia. 2012–12. doi:10.1080/17448689.2012.738894. S2CID 144605155. Retrieved 26 August 2012.[permanent dead link]
  12. ^ Wolff, Elisabetta Cassina (2 November 2016). "Evola's interpretation of fascism and moral responsibility". Patterns of Prejudice. 50 (4–5): 478–494. doi:10.1080/0031322X.2016.1243662. S2CID 152240495.
  13. ^ a b Alexander Meleagrou-Hitchens, Hans Brun, A Neo-Nationalist Network: The English Defence League and Europe’s Counter-Jihad Movement Archived 12 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation and Political Violence, March 2013.
  14. ^ Cited in Lee (2016):
    • Fekete, Liz (15 December 2011). "The Muslim conspiracy theory and the Oslo massacre". Race & Class. 53 (3): 30–47. doi:10.1177/0306396811425984. S2CID 146443283.
    • Bangstad, Sindre (July 2013). "Eurabia Comes to Norway". Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations. 24 (3): 369–391. doi:10.1080/09596410.2013.783969. S2CID 145132618.
    • Meleagrou-Hitchens, A., & Brun, H. (2013). A neo-nationalist network: The English Defence League and Europe’s counter-jihad movement. London: The International Centre for the Study of Radicalisationand Political Violence.
  15. ^ Lee, Benjamin J. (30 September 2016). "'It's not paranoia when they are really out to get you': the role of conspiracy theories in the context of heightened security". Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression. 9 (1): 4–20. doi:10.1080/19434472.2016.1236143.
  16. ^ a b c d (2014). Deland, Mats; Minkenberg, Michael; Mays, Christin (eds.). In the Tracks of Breivik: Far Right Networks in Northern and Eastern Europe. Münster: LIT Verlag. p. 62. ISBN 978-3-643-90542-0. Archived from the original on 9 August 2016. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
  17. ^ a b c d (2013). Taylor, Max; Currie, P.M.; Holbrook, Donald (eds.). Extreme right wing political violence and terrorism (1. publ. ed.). London: Bloomsbury. pp. 173–4. ISBN 9781441140876.
  18. ^ a b c Hegghammer, Thomas (30 July 2011). "The Rise of the Macro-Nationalists". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 November 2011. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
  19. ^ Beirich, Heidi (2013). "Hate Across the Waters: The Role of American Extremists in Fostering an International White Consciousness". In Wodak, Ruth; KhosraviNik, Majid; Mral, Brigitte (eds.). Right-Wing Populism in Europe: Politics and Discourse. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 91–92. ISBN 978-1-78093-343-6.
  20. ^ a b Gabriella Lazaridis; Marilou Polymeropoulou; Vasiliki Tsagkroni (2016). Gabriella Lazaridis; Giovanna Campani (eds.). Understanding the Populist Shift: Othering in a Europe in Crisis. Routledge. pp. 70–103. ISBN 978-1138101654.
  21. ^ a b c Luban, Daniel; Eli Clifton (28 February 2009). "Dutch Foe of Islam Ignores US Allies' Far Right Ties". InterPress Service. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 28 August 2011.
  22. ^ Archer, Toby (25 July 2011). "Breivik's swamp". Archived from the original on 10 September 2011. Retrieved 28 August 2011.
  23. ^ "CounterJihad Brussels 2007 Conference Press Release". Counterjihad Europa. Internet Archive: Wordpress. 28 October 2007. Archived from the original on 31 October 2007. Retrieved 22 May 2016.
  24. ^ "80 Arrested After Anti-Islam Protest In Denmark". Associated Press. 31 March 2012. Archived from the original on 1 April 2012. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
  25. ^ "Islam debate takes centre stage in Aarhus". The Copenhagen Post. 4 April 2012. Archived from the original on 19 April 2012. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
  26. ^ a b Shane, Scott (24 July 2011). "Killings in Norway Spotlight Anti-Muslim Thought in U.S." The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
  27. ^ a b Arun Kundnani (June 2012). "Blind Spot? Security Narratives and Far-Right Violence in Europe" (PDF). International Centre for Counter-terrorism. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 July 2012. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  28. ^ a b Fekete, Liz (2012). "The Muslim conspiracy theory and the Oslo massacre". Race & Class. 53 (3): 30–47. doi:10.1177/0306396811425984. S2CID 146443283.
  29. ^ a b Townsend, Mark (14 April 2012). "Far-right anti-Muslim network on rise globally as Breivik trial opens:Report highlights UK role in the growth of groups that inspired Norway's mass murderer". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
  30. ^ "Stop Islamization of Nations (SION) Calls on UN to Protect Christians of Syria". Reuters (Press release). 20 January 2012. Archived from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
  31. ^ Anders Hvass. "Lars Hedegaard ude af DF" [Lars Hedegaard leaves Danish People's Party] (in Danish). . Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  32. ^ Nick Lowles (June 2012). "International Counter-jihadist Organisations - The International Free Press Society (IFPS) Network". Internet Archive: Hope Not Hate. Archived from the original on 3 March 2013. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
  33. ^ a b "Eurabiske vers" [Eurabian verses] (in Norwegian). Morgenbladet. 19 August 2011. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
  34. ^ "Outraged, And Outrageous". The New York Times. 10 October 2010. Archived from the original on 24 June 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
  35. ^ Pamela Geller (31 July 2011). "American Freedom Defense Initiative Action Plan". Archived from the original on 1 May 2012. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
  36. ^ "Backgrounder: Stop Islamization of America (SIOA)". Anti-Defamation League. 25 March 2011. Archived from the original on 2 May 2012. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
  37. ^ Why do so many Americans believe that Islam is a political ideology, not a religion? Archived 12 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Washington Post, Michael Schulson, 3 February 2017
  38. ^ a b Trump’s counter-jihad Archived 8 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Zack Beauchamp, Vox, February 2017
  39. ^ "Fringe group barred suspected Norway killer from forum". Reuters. 23 July 2011. Archived from the original on 17 May 2012. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
  40. ^ "Her er Breiviks meningsfeller" [These are the people who share Breivik's opinions] (in Norwegian). Dagbladet. 25 August 2011. Archived from the original on 3 November 2013. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
  41. ^ "Anders Gravers Pedersen væltet omkuld under demonstration" [Anders Gravers Pedersen scuffled during demonstration] (in Danish). TV2 Nord. 21 May 2010. Archived from the original on 10 July 2011. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
  42. ^ "SION to Hold International Congress and Media Workshop to Address Islamic Supremacist War Against Free Speech (Press Release)". PR Newswire. 15 March 2012. Archived from the original on 18 April 2012. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
  43. ^ Archer, Toby (15 August 2008). "Countering the counter-jihad". Archived from the original on 23 March 2012. Retrieved 28 August 2011.
  44. ^ Bodissey, Baron (20 November 2009). "The Counterjihad Manifesto". Gates of Vienna. Archived from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 28 August 2011.
  45. ^ "Counter-jihad Report". Hope Not Hate. Internet Archive. 1 June 2012. Archived from the original on 5 July 2012. Retrieved 21 May 2016.
  46. ^ Patalong, Frank (25 July 2011). "Blogging Hate - Anders Breivik's Roots in Right-Wing Populism". Der Spiegel. Archived from the original on 29 July 2011. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
  47. ^ Pipes, Daniel (27 July 2011). "Norway's Terrorism in Context: The damage Behring Breivik did to the counterjihad may well have been purposeful". National Review Online. Archived from the original on 22 April 2012. Retrieved 24 April 2012.
  48. ^ Daniel Vergara (10 January 2014). "Breivik vill deportera "illojala judar" [Breivik wants to deport "disloyal Jews"]". Expo (in Swedish). Archived from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
  49. ^ "Mass killer Breivik says wants to create fascist party" Archived 19 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Reuters. 5 September 2014.
  50. ^ Mjaaland, Marius Timman (28 September 2011). "Korstog mot hellig krig (Crusade against Holy War)". Aftenposten. Archived from the original on 1 October 2011. Retrieved 28 September 2011.
  51. ^ Akbarzadeh, Shahram; Roose, Joshua M. (September 2011). "Muslims, Multiculturalism and the Question of the Silent Majority". Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs. 31 (3): 309–325. doi:10.1080/13602004.2011.599540. S2CID 145595802.
  52. ^ Nilsson, Per-Erik (17 February 2015). "'Secular Retaliation': A Case Study of Integralist Populism, Anti-Muslim Discourse, and (Il)liberal Discourse on Secularism in Contemporary France". Politics, Religion & Ideology. 16 (1): 87–106. doi:10.1080/21567689.2015.1012160. S2CID 143457958.
  53. ^ [1] Archived 4 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine The Anti-Muslim Inner Circle. By Robert Steinback| Intelligence Report| Summer 2011| Issue Number: 142

Bibliography

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