Cultural depictions of Augustus

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Augustus listening to the reading of The Aeneid by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1812, later reworked). Over the course of 53 years, Ingres revisited this scene from antiquity in over 100 drawings and watercolours and three oil paintings.

Caesar Augustus (63 BC – AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first and among the most important of the Roman Emperors. As such, he has frequently been depicted in literature and art since ancient times.

In many of these works, Augustus appears as the main character, but he also frequently features as a supporting character in depictions of prominent contemporaries, most notably in those of his adoptive father Julius Caesar and his great rivals Mark Antony and Cleopatra. As a result of the various titles he adopted throughout his life, Augustus is known to history by several different names, however he is most commonly referred to as either Octavian, Caesar or Augustus in popular culture, depending on the stage of his life that is being depicted.[1]

Augustus' most visible impact on everyday culture is the eighth month of the year, which was renamed in Augustus' honor in 8 BC because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, occurred during this month.[2]

Roman Sculpture[]

Augustus was one of the most widely depicted individuals in ancient times,[3] appearing in coins, sculptures, cameos, plaques, and other media.

His dominant portrait, introduced in 27 BCE to visually express the title Augustus, is that of the serene, ageless First Citizen, the most famous example of which is the Augustus of Prima Porta.[4] At its best, in Roland R. R. Smith's view, this "type achieves a sort [of] visual paradox that might be described as mature, ageless, and authoritative youthfulness".[5] Another full-size statue of Augustus with these "Primaporta type" features is the Augustus of Via Labicana, portraying Augustus in the role of Pontifex Maximus.

D. Boschung[6] identified four other portrait types (the Actium or Alcúdia type, the Béziers-Spoleto type, the Forbes or MA 1280 type, and the Lucus Feroniae type),[7] although Smith considers the Béziers-Spoleto type to be a variant of the Alcúdia type and the Lucus Feroniae type to be a category of dubious validity.[7] The Alcúdia portrait type is thought to have been developed around 40 BCE to coincide with the adoption of the patronymic title Divi Filius; Smith describes it as "a youthful portrait with thick hair and probably some expression of vigour and energy".[5] Different scholars have argued whether the Forbes type, "with distinctive short forehead hair," preceded or followed the Prima Porta type.[8]

  • Head from Meroe, dated to 30-25 BCE[9]

  • Portrait of the dominant ('Prima Porta') type[4]

  • Augustus on the altar to Fortuna Primigenia at Praeneste, based on the 'Alcúdia' or 'Actium' type but showing greater age[5]

  • Portrait of the 'Forbes' type (Louvre MA 1280)[10]

  • Bust of Augustus in Spoleto, one of the two examples of the 'Béziers-Spoleto' portrait type[7]

  • Augustus in the Villa Chiragan. This portrait is based on the Alcúdia and Prima Porta types but shows greater age[5]

  • Augustus, then named Caesar Divi Filius, in 36 BCE; his beard symbolizes that he is in mourning[11]

  • Egyptianized statue of Augustus. Roman Period. State Museum of Egyptian Art, Munich

  • Head of Augustus from Bergama, in modern-day Turkey. Museum of Archaeology, Istanbul

  • The Via Labicana statue of Augustus, closeup.

  • The Blacas Cameo, dated from shortly after his death in 14 AD. It has been located in the British Museum since 1867

  • Close up on the sculpted detail of the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace)

  • The Gemma Augustea in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Art[]

Equestrian statue of Augustus (2007), in Mérida, Spain

Literature[]

Augustan[]

Main articles: Augustan literature (ancient Rome) and Gaius Maecenas
Manuscript of Virgil's masterpiece, the Aeneid, circa 1470, Cristoforo Majorana

In literary histories of the first part of the 20th century and earlier, Augustan Literature, the pieces of Latin literature written during the reign of Augustus, was regarded along with that of the Late Republic as constituting the Golden Age of Latin literature, a period of stylistic classicism.[12]

In the wars following Julius Caesar's assassination, a generation of Republican literary figures was lost. Cicero and his contemporaries were replaced by a new generation who spent their formidable years under the old constructs and were forced to make their mark under the watchful eye of a new emperor and his quasi-culture minister, Gaius Maecenas, who was a prolific patron of the arts. The demand for great orators had ceased,[13] shifting to an emphasis on poetry. Other than the historian Livy, the most remarkable writers of the period were the poets Virgil, Horace, and Ovid.

Augustan literature produced the most widely read, influential, and enduring of Rome's poets. Although Virgil has sometimes been considered a "court poet", his Aeneid, the most important of the Latin epics, also permits complex readings on the source and meaning of Rome's power and the responsibilities of a good leader.[14] Ovid's works were wildly popular, but the poet was exiled by Augustus in one of literary history's great mysteries; carmen et error ("a poem" or "poetry" and "a mistake") is Ovid's own oblique explanation. Among prose works, the monumental history of Livy is preeminent for both its scope and stylistic achievement. The multi-volume work On Architecture by Vitruvius also remains of great informational interest.[14]

In 1737, British writer Alexander Pope, who had been imitating Horace, wrote an Epistle to Augustus that was in fact addressed to George II of Great Britain and seemingly endorsed the notion of his age being like that of Augustus, when poetry became more mannered, political and satirical than in the era of Julius Caesar.[15] Later, Voltaire and Oliver Goldsmith (in his History of Literature in 1764) used the term "Augustan" to refer to the literature of the 1720s and the 1730s in Britain.[16]

Medieval[]

  • Augustus is mentioned several times in Dante Alighieri's epic poem, the Divine Comedy (c. 1308–1321):
    • He is called "the good Augustus" by Virgil, a Roman poet of the Augustan period, who appears as the author's guide through Hell and Purgatory. Inf. I, 71.
    • Augustus is said to have taken charge of Virgil's physical and literary remains after his death. "My bones were buried by Octavian." Purg. VII, 6.
    • His triumphant chariot is compared to the chariot in the Pageant of the Church Triumphant. Purg. XXIX, 116.

Modern[]

  • The 1934 historical fiction novel I, Claudius by Robert Graves has Augustus play a central role. Augustus is depicted as being a well-meaning ruler, who genuinely desires to retire from his status as Emperor and restore the Republic, but is driven by Livia into not doing so. Towards the end of his life, Augustus recognizes the sins of Livia and attempts to stave her off and declare Postumus Agrippa his heir, leading Livia to poison Augustus. Augustus deals with numerous heartbreaks, the greatest of which is his banishment of his daughter Julia for her numerous adulteries.
  • Augustus plays an important role in Elisabeth Dored's 1959 romance novel I Loved Tiberius.
  • Augustus is an example in an important speech in Kurt Vonnegut's 1965 book God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater.
  • A bust of Augustus has an important role in The Mystery of the Fiery Eye (1967) of the Three Investigators series.
  • John Edward Williams wrote a novel titled Augustus which won the 1973 National Book Award.
  • Allan Massie's 1986 novel Augustus purported to be an autobiography of the Roman emperor.
  • John Maddox Roberts's SPQR series (1990-2010) takes place during the waning days of the Roman Republic. The series takes the form of the protagonist, Decius Metellus's memoirs. By the time of his memoirs' writing, Decius is an elderly senator during the reign of Augustus, whom he despises so much that he refuses to refer to him except as "The First Citizen," one of his more innocuous titles. Augustus leaves Decius alone, knowing him to be powerless, and even occasionally calls on him to solve a mystery (the subject matter of some of the short stories).
  • Augustus is a supporting character in Margaret George's 1997 novel The Memoirs of Cleopatra.
  • Augustus is a significant figure in Edward Burton's 1999 historical novel Caesar's Daughter.
  • Augstus, under the name of Gaius Octavius, plays a key role in the last two novels in Colleen McCullough's Masters of Rome series. The later stages of The October Horse (2002) chronicle the emergence of Octavian, while Antony and Cleopatra (2007) spans the years 41-27 B.C. In the latter novel, Octavian and his wife, Livia, are depicted as pragmatic to the point of total ruthlessness but not needlessly cruel.
  • Augustus is mentioned in several of Harry Turtledove's alternative history novels, in particular Gunpowder Empire (2003), and features prominently in Turtledove's historical novel Give Me Back My Legions! (2009). The title of the 2009 novel refers to Augustus' alleged words in the aftermath of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, in which he was so devastated by the annihilation of three Roman legions that he spent the next several weeks in a stupour, repeating the phrase Quintili Vare, legiones redde! (Quintilius Varus, give me back my legions!).
  • The fifth book in Conn Iggulden's historical fiction series, Emperor, entitled The Blood of Gods (2013), deals with the rise of Augustus and events after Julius Caesar's assassination.
  • Augustus (as Octavian) is an important character in Robert Harris' 2015 historical novel Dictator, which chronicles the last fifteen years of Cicero's life. Octavian also features in the 2017 stage adaptation of the novel.
  • Augustus (first as Octavian, then as Augustus) plays a central role in Michael Livingston's historical fantasy novels The Shards of Heaven (2015) and The Gates of Hell (2016).[17][18]
  • Augustus is a central character in the DC Comics graphic novel The Sandman installment #30, titled "August" (issue collected in The Sandman: Fables & Reflections).

Theater[]

The first page of Antony and Cleopatra from the First Folio of Shakespeare's plays, published in 1623.
  • Augustus is a notable supporting character in William Shakespeare's plays Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra, in which he is called Octavius and Caesar respectively. Augustus' cold, ruthless personality contrasts starkly with Antony's romantic tendencies.
  • Augustus is the central character in Nathaniel Lee's 1676 tragedy Gloriana, also known as The Court of Augustus Caesar, and was originally played by Michael Mohun.
  • Augustus also plays an important role in John Dryden's 1677 heroic drama, All for Love, although he never actually appears on stage.

Film[]

Portrayals of Octavian/Augustus in film:

Television[]

  • Augustus is played by David William in the 1963 BBC miniseries The Spread of the Eagle.
  • Augustus is played by Roland Culver in the 1968 BBC miniseries The Caesars.
  • In the 1969 Play of the Month production of William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Augustus (as Octavius) is portrayed by John Alderton.
  • Augustus is portrayed in the celebrated BBC 1976 dramatization of Robert Graves' novel I, Claudius by Brian Blessed. It is implied in the dramatization that he was poisoned to death by Livia.
  • Augustus appears twice in the BBC Television Shakespeare series. He is portrayed first by Garrick Hagon in the 1979 adaptation of Julius Caesar, and then by Ian Charleson in the 1981 production of Antony and Cleopatra.
  • Augustus is played by Rupert Frazer in the 1983 BBC miniseries The Cleopatras.
  • Pax Soprana is the sixth episode of the HBO original series The Sopranos, released in 1999. The title is a reference to the Pax Romana, an era of Roman peace ushered in by Augustus, which Tony Soprano hopes to achieve within the Soprano family. Augustus is mentioned by Tony in his conversation with Uncle Junior.
  • Augustus is played by Mark Warren and Colin Moy in several episodes of the Xena: Warrior Princess series (2000).
  • Augustus is portrayed in the 2003 movie Imperium: Augustus (part of the Imperium movie series) by Peter O'Toole as an old man and Benjamin Sadler as a young man.
  • In the HBO/BBC/RAI television series Rome (2005), Octavian is portrayed as a young man by Max Pirkis and as an adult by Simon Woods.[19] In the first season of the series Octavian is a well-read supporter of Caesar. Octavian becomes the pupil of Titus Pullo and also advises Pullo several times. Octavian shifts to more overtly ambitious and Machiavellian in the second season as his growing rivalry with Antony becomes apparent. In contrast to more benign portrayals of Octavian, this portrayal depicts him as fairly cruel with only brief moments of humanity shown in his relationship with his sister. The series ends with Octavian's triumphant return to Rome after his victory over Antony and Cleopatra.
  • Augustus is portrayed by Santiago Cabrera in an ABC miniseries called Empire (2005), which takes place after the assassination of Julius Caesar.
  • Augustus is played by Mathew Baynton in the 2009–2013 TV series Horrible Histories and also features in the 2015 reboot series of the same name (portrayed by James McNicholas).
  • Augustus (Gaius) is played by Tom Glynn-Carney and Matthew McNulty in the TV series Domina (2021).

Radio[]

Military[]

Postcard of the MS Augustus (1950)

Video Games[]

  • In Civilization IV, each game concludes with various statistics and a timeline, as well as a scale comparing the player to various historical figures. Augustus Caesar is at the top of the scale. He was also added in the expansion Civilization IV: Warlords as a Roman leader, accompanying Julius Caesar from the original game.
  • Augustus also makes his way into Civilization V, once again leading the Roman Empire. His special ability is "The Glory of Rome", which grants production bonuses for city improvements.
  • Augustus is a Main Character in the PS2 game, Shadow of Rome.
  • Augustus is one of the playable factions in Total War: Rome II's Imperator Augustus Campaign pack, which depicts the Second Triumvirate War between Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus during the last years of the Roman Republic. This DLC was released simultaneously with Total War: Rome II: Emperor Edition.

See also[]

Notes[]

  1. ^ Ronald Syme, "Imperator Caesar: A Study in Nomenclature", Historia, vol. 7, no. 2 (Apr. 1958), pp. 176, 179, 181–183, 185
  2. ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.12.35.
  3. ^ Goldsworthy (2014), p. 256.
  4. ^ Jump up to: a b Smith (1996), p. 38.
  5. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Smith (1996), p. 46.
  6. ^ D. Boschung (1993). Die Bildnisse des Augustus: das römische Herrscherbild. Berlin: Gebr. Mann. ISBN 3786116954.
  7. ^ Jump up to: a b c Smith (1996), p. 39.
  8. ^ Smith (1996), pp. 38–39.
  9. ^ Smith (1996), p. 40.
  10. ^ Smith (1996), p. 37.
  11. ^ Goldsworthy (2014).
  12. ^ Fergus Millar, "Ovid and the Domus Augusta: Rome Seen from Tomoi," Journal of Roman Studies 83 (1993), p. 6.
  13. ^ Teuffel 1873, p. 385, "Public life became extinct, all political business passed into the hands of the monarch..."
  14. ^ Jump up to: a b Joseph Farrell, "The Augustan Period: 40 BC–AD 14," in A Companion to Latin Literature (Blackwell, 2005), pp. 44–57.
  15. ^ Thornton 275)
  16. ^ Newman and Brown 32
  17. ^ "The Shards of Heaven by Michael Livingston". Publishers Weekly. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
  18. ^ "Review: The Shards of Heaven by Michael Livingston". Kirkus Reviews. 3 September 2015. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
  19. ^ "Augustus Caesar (Character) from Rome (2005)," The Internet Movie Database.
  20. ^ "Life of Caesar Podcast" Accessed 2 September 2015

References[]

  • Goldsworthy, Adrian (2014). Augustus: First Emperor of Rome. ISBN 9780300178722.
  • Smith, Roland R. R. (1996). "Typology and diversity in the portraits of Augustus". Journal of Roman Archaeology. 9: 30–47. doi:10.1017/S1047759400016482.
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