Federal Executive Council (Yugoslavia)

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The Federal Executive Council (FEC, Serbo-Croatian, Savezno izvršno veće (SIV), Савезно извршно веће (СИВ)) was the executive body of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) responsible for state affairs and for supervising the implementation of laws. It consisted of up to 15 members elected by the Federal Assembly for a four-year term and the presidents of executive councils of republics and provinces. The Federal Executive Council played an important role in the Government of the SFRY from its creation in 1953 until the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1992.

Structure[]

The FEC was led by a President (also called Prime Minister) and two vice presidents, who were elected by the S.F.R.Y assembly on request of the President of the Socialist Federalist Republic of Yugoslavia. Council members (also called secretariats) were elected to equally represent the six republics making up the S.F.R.Y, as well as the two autonomous regions in Serbia, Kosovo and Vojvodina.[1] Both the President and council members of the FEC would hold terms of four years. The FEC President could not hold more than two consecutive terms, however council members were allowed to hold up to 3 terms under certain statutes. Elections for a new Federal Executive Council would take place after the creation of each new S.F.R.Y Assembly and their respective constitutions. Members of the FEC give up their positions in the S.F.R.Y assembly when elected. The FEC President had the right to call meeting of the council at any time. The S.F.R.Y President or at least five council members also had the right to call a meeting as well.[2]

The council was composed of six federal secretariats:

The Committee for Foreign Trade and 12 internal secretariats in:

  • Administration
  • Directorates
  • Administrative institutions
  • Inspectorates
  • Commissions[1]

The Federal Executive Council as a whole was considered a cabinet if one was to compare SFR Yugoslavia to other countries at the time.[3]

Responsibilities[]

The FEC was responsible for most day to day tasks of the S.F.R.Y assembly. These included reviewing policy set by the S.F.R.Y assembly, creation of federal bills to be submitted to the S.F.R.Y assembly, submission of budget regulations for the Federal Budget, and adopting regulations to enforce Federal Statutes.[2]

The creation of legislation could take the FEC about a year before it is sent to the Federal Assembly. In the 1970s, the FEC was behind the creation of legislation tackling controversial issues in Yugoslavia regarding the six republics. The FEC was one of the few bureaucratic bodies in Yugoslavia that had access to reliable information needed to create effective policies. The 1974 Constitution of Yugoslavia also gave the FEC the right to appoint council members to the new state presidency, which became the administration and command authority for the Yugoslav People's Army. They would appoint the councils of state security, national defense, foreign policy, and protection of the constitutional order.[1]

History[]

SIV 1, seat of the Federal Executive Council

Notable Events[]

During the 1953 revision of the Yugoslav Constitution, Josip Broz Tito was elected both President of Yugoslavia and of the new FEC by a vote of 568-1. Under these revisions, the Yugoslav Government was to function without the Parliament until new elections could take place in the Spring of 1954. The Parliament selected thirty of its own members to serve in the FEC.[4][5]

In 1962, The League of Communists of Yugoslavia planned a restructuring of the Yugoslav Government. They planned to add a "top council"[6] led by a premier that would take over the role of the FEC, effectively dissolving the council. Any member in this new council could be removed by the Parliament at any time. The 1963 Yugoslav Constitution allowed a new council to be created, but did not dissolve the FEC. Instead, this new council would play a more local role, focusing on culture, social welfare, and public administration in the six republics. Up until 1963, the President of the Council was held simultaneously by the President of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. After 1963, the president was elected by the Federal People's Assembly. No government official could hold two office positions at the same time after the 1963 Constitution excluding Tito.[7][6]

The Council was housed in the SIV 1 building in Belgrade.

After Tito's death in 1980, many of the six republics began to demand more autonomy and were voicing their interest more aggressively. To try and settle negotiations, the FEC relied heavily on temporary measures outlined in the constitution. These measures could not be blocked by protesting delegations and could only be overturned by unanimous decision of the delegations. These measures, that were only supposed to be used for shot-term periods, were used extensively for long periods of time. The FEC's failure to create effective long-term legislation could be seen as one of the many factors leading up to the Breakup of Yugoslavia.[1]

Councils[]

Second Federal Executive Council of Josip Broz Tito[]

The Third Federal Executive Council of Josip Broz Tito was Yugoslavia's national government from 30 January 1954 to 19 April 1958. Josip Broz Tito was its president, simultaneously also serving as president of the republic and president of the party.

Portfolio Member Took office Left office Party Notes
President
President Josip Broz Tito 30 January 1954 19 April 1958 SKJ People's Hero - 6 November 1944
Vice-Presidents
Vice-President Edvard Kardelj 30 January 1954 19 April 1958 SKJ People's Hero - 20 December 1951
Vice-President Aleksandar Ranković 30 January 1954 19 April 1958 SKJ People's Hero - 4 July 1945
Vice-President Svetozar Vukmanović 30 January 1954 19 April 1958 SKJ People's Hero - 20 December 1951
Vice-President Rodoljub Čolaković 30 January 1954 19 April 1958 SKJ People's Hero - 27 November 1953
State Secretaries
Foreign Affairs Koča Popović 30 January 1954 19 April 1958 SKJ People's Hero - 27 November 1953
National Defense Ivan Gošnjak 30 January 1954 19 April 1958 SKJ People's Hero - 17 November 1953
Interior 30 January 1954 19 April 1958 SKJ People's Hero - 27 November 1953
National Economy Hasan Brkić 30 January 1954 1955 SKJ People's Hero - 27 November 1953
National Economy 1955 1956 SKJ
Budget & State Administration 30 January 1954 1956 SKJ Married to People's Hero Dobrivoje Radosavljević.
Finance Avdo Humo 1956 19 April 1958 SKJ People's Hero - 27 November 1953
Commodity Trade 1956 19 April 1958 SKJ People's Hero - 27 November 1953
Chairs
Foreign Trade Hasan Brkić 1956 19 April 1958 SKJ People's Hero - 27 November 1953

Third Federal Executive Council of Josip Broz Tito[]

The Third Federal Executive Council of Josip Broz Tito was Yugoslavia's national government from 19 April 1958 to 29 June 1963. Josip Broz Tito was its president, simultaneously also serving as national president and general secretary of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia.

Portfolio Member Took office Left office Party Notes
President
President Josip Broz Tito 19 April 1958 29 June 1963 SKJ People's Hero - 6 November 1944
Vice-Presidents
Vice-President Edvard Kardelj 19 April 1958 29 June 1963 SKJ People's Hero - 20 December 1951
Vice-President Aleksandar Ranković 19 April 1958 18 April 1963 SKJ Resigned in April 1963 to become state Vice-President.
People's Hero - 4 July 1945
Vice-President 18 April 1963 29 June 1963 SKJ Replaced Aleksandar Ranković in April 1963.
People's Hero - 27 November 1953
Vice-President 19 April 1958 29 June 1963 SKJ People's Hero - 5 July 1952
Vice-President Rodoljub Čolaković 19 April 1958 29 June 1963 SKJ People's Hero - 27 November 1953
State Secretaries
Foreign Affairs Koča Popović 19 April 1958 29 June 1963 SKJ People's Hero - 27 November 1953
National Defense Ivan Gošnjak 19 April 1958 29 June 1963 SKJ People's Hero - 17 November 1953
Interior 19 April 1958 18 April 1963 SKJ People's Hero - 27 November 1953
Interior 18 April 1963 29 June 1963 SKJ Replaced Svetislav Stefanović in April 1963.
People's Hero - 27 November 1953
Finance 19 April 1958 1962 SKJ
Finance Kiro Gligorov 1962 29 June 1963 SKJ
Commodity Trade 19 April 1958 18 April 1963 SKJ People's Hero - 27 November 1953
Commodity Trade 18 April 1963 29 June 1963 SKJ
Foreign Trade 18 April 1963 29 June 1963 SKJ
Chairs
Foreign Trade 19 April 1958 1960 SKJ
Foreign Trade Sergej Kraigher 1960 18 April 1963 SKJ Committee promoted to secretariat in April 1963.

Members ex officio[]

Portfolio Member Took office Left office Party Notes
Member Osman Karabegović 19 April 1958 29 June 1963 SKJ President of the Executive Council of PR Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Member Jakov Blažević 19 April 1958 10 July 1962 SKJ President of the Executive Council of PR Croatia.
Member Zvonko Brkić 19 April 1958 29 June 1963 SKJ President of the Executive Council of PR Croatia.
Member Ljupčo Arsov 19 April 1958 1961 SKJ President of the Executive Council of PR Macedonia.
Member 1961 29 June 1963 SKJ President of the Executive Council of PR Macedonia.
Member Filip Bajković 19 April 1958 12 July 1962 SKJ President of the Executive Council of PR Montenegro.
Member Đorđije Pajković 12 July 1962 29 June 1963 SKJ President of the Executive Council of PR Montenegro.
Member Miloš Minić 19 April 1958 9 June 1962 SKJ President of the Executive Council of PR Serbia.
Member Slobodan Penezić Krcun 9 June 1962 29 June 1963 SKJ President of the Executive Council of PR Serbia.
Member Boris Kraigher 19 April 1958 25 June 1962 SKJ President of the Executive Council of PR Slovenia.
Member Viktor Avbelj 25 June 1962 29 June 1963 SKJ President of the Executive Council of PR Slovenia.

First Federal Executive Council of Džemal Bijedić[]

The First Federal Executive Council of Džemal Bijedić was the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's national government from 30 July 1971 to 16 May 1974.

Portfolio Member Took office Left office Party Representing
President
President Džemal Bijedić 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ N/A (SR Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Republican Representatives
Vice-President 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ SR Croatia
Vice-President Anton Vratuša 3 December 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ SR Slovenia
Member Momčilo Cemović 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ SR Montenegro
Member 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ SR Serbia
Member 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ SR Macedonia
Member 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ SR Bosnia and Herzegovina
Member Borisav Jović 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ SR Serbia
Member 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ SR Croatia
Member 30 July 1971 12 July 1973 SKJ SR Croatia
Member Marko Orlandic 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ SR Montenegro
Member 30 July 1971 3 December 1971 SKJ SR Macedonia
Member 3 December 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ SR Bosnia and Herzegovina
Member 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ AP Kosovo
Member 30 July 1971 12 July 1973 SKJ AP Vojvodina
Member Anton Vratuša 30 July 1971 3 December 1971 SKJ SR Slovenia
Member 3 December 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ SR Serbia
State Secretaries
Foreign Affairs Mirko Tepavac 3 December 1971 1 November 1972 SKJ N/A (AP Vojvodina)
Foreign Affairs 1 November 1972 5 December 1972 SKJ N/A (SR Croatia)
Foreign Affairs Miloš Minić 5 December 1972 17 May 1974 SKJ N/A (SR Serbia)
National Defense Nikola Ljubičić 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ N/A (SR Serbia)
Interior Džemal Bijedić 30 July 1971 3 December 1971 SKJ N/A (SR Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Interior 3 December 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ N/A (SR Montenegro)
Finance Janko Smole 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ N/A (SR Slovenia)
Foreign Trade 30 July 1971 12 July 1973 SKJ N/A (SR Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Foreign Trade 12 July 1973 17 May 1974 SKJ N/A (SR Croatia)
Economy 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ N/A (SR Serbia)
Justice 30 July 1971 3 December 1971 SKJ N/A (SR Slovenia)
Justice 3 December 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ N/A (SR Macedonia)
Labour & Social Policy 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ N/A (SR Montenegro)
Agriculture 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ N/A (SR Croatia)
Transport & Communication 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ N/A (SR Macedonia)
Federal Executive Council 30 July 1971 17 May 1974 SKJ N/A (SR Slovenia)

Second Federal Executive Council of Džemal Bijedić[]

The Second Federal Executive Council of Džemal Bijedić was the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's national government from 16 May 1974 to 16 May 1978. Džemal Bijedić was its first president until his death on 18 January 1977. He was subsequently replaced by Veselin Đuranović as president on 15 March to the end of the Federal Executive Council's four-year term.

Portfolio Member Took office Left office Party Representing
President
President Džemal Bijedić 30 July 1971 18 January 1977 SKJ N/A (SR Bosnia and Herzegovina)
President Veselin Đuranović 15 March 1977 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SR Montenegro)
Republican Representatives
Vice-President Miloš Minić 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ SR Serbia
Vice-President 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ SR Croatia
Vice-President Anton Vratuša 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ SR Slovenia
Vice-President Dobroslav Ćulafić 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ SR Montenegro
Member 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ SR Macedonia
Member 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ SR Macedonia
Member 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ SR Montenegro
Member Borisav Jović 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ SR Serbia
Member 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ SAP Vojvodina
Member 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ SR Serbia
Member 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ SAP Kosovo
Member 16 May 1974 16 May 1982 SKJ SR Croatia
Member Janko Smole 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ SR Slovenia
Member 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ SR Bosnia and Herzegovina
State Secretaries
Foreign Affairs Miloš Minić 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SR Serbia)
National Defense Nikola Ljubičić 18 May 1967 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SR Serbia)
Interior 16 May 1974 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SR Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Finance Momčilo Cemović 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SAP Montenegro)
Foreign Trade 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SR Croatia)
Market and Prices 16 May 1974 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SAP Kosovo)
Justice Ivan Franko 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SR Slovenia)
Chairs
Information 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SR Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Energy & Industry 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SAP Vojvodina)
Agriculture 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SR Croatia)
Transport & Communications 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SR Serbia)
Labour, Health & Social Protection 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SR Slovenia)
Veterans & Disabled Persons 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SR Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Tourism 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SR Montenegro)
Economic Relations with Developing Countries Stojan Andov 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SR Macedonia)
Labour and Employment 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SR Macedonia)
Sciences and Culture 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SR Macedonia)
Social Planning 16 May 1974 16 May 1978 SKJ N/A (SAP Vojvodina)
Legislation 16 May 1974 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SR Serbia)

Federal Executive Council of Veselin Đuranović[]

The Federal Executive Council of Veselin Đuranović was the Yugoslavia's national government from 16 May 1978 to 16 May 1982. The federal executive council had 29 members. Veselin Đuranović was its president. Another 14 members represented the country's six republics (with two members each) and the two autonomous provinces (with one member each), serving as either vice-presidents or as members without portfolio. The remaining 14 members served as federal secretaries and chairmen.

Portfolio Member Took office Left office Party Representing
President
President Veselin Đuranović 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SR Montenegro)
Republican Representatives
Vice-President Branislav Ikonić 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ SR Serbia
Vice-President 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ SR Croatia
Vice-President Andrej Marinc 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ SR Slovenia
Vice-President 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ SR Macedonia
Vice-President 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ SR Bosnia and Herzegovina
Member Stojan Andov 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ SR Macedonia
Member 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ SR Montenegro
Member 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ SR Serbia
Member 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ SAP Vojvodina
Member Radoje Kontić 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ SR Montenegro
Member Bogoljub Nedeljković 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ SAP Kosovo
Member 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ SR Croatia
Member 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ SR Slovenia
Member 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ SR Bosnia and Herzegovina
State Secretaries
Foreign Affairs Josip Vrhovec 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SR Croatia)
National Defense Nikola Ljubičić 18 May 1967 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SR Serbia)
Interior 17 May 1974 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SR Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Finance 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SAP Slovenia)
Foreign Trade 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SR Macedonia)
Market and Prices 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SAP Kosovo)
Justice 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SR Montenegro)
Information 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SAP Kosovo)
Chairs
Energy & Industry 16 May 1978 11 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SR Macedonia)
Agriculture 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SR Slovenia)
Transport & Communications 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SR Croatia)
Labour, Health & Social Protection 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SR Macedonia)
Veterans & Disabled Persons 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SR Serbia)
Legislation 16 May 1978 16 May 1982 SKJ N/A (SR Serbia)

Federal Executive Council of Milka Planinc[]

The Federal Executive Council of Milka Planinc was Yugoslavia's national government from 16 May 1982 to 16 May 1986. The federal executive council had 29 members. Milka Planinc was its president. Another 14 members represented the country's six republics (with two members each) and the two autonomous provinces (with one member each), serving as either vice-presidents or as members without portfolio. The remaining 14 members served as federal secretaries and chairmen.

Portfolio Member Took office Left office Party Representing
President
President Milka Planinc 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ N/A (SR Croatia)
National Representatives
Vice-President 16 May 1982 16 May 1984 SKJ SR Slovenia
Vice-President Janez Zemljarič 16 May 1984 16 May 1986 SKJ SR Slovenia
Vice-President 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ SR Serbia
Vice-President 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ SR Montenegro
Member 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ SR Macedonia
Member Živorad Kovačević 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ SR Serbia
Member 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ SR Bosnia and Herzegovina
Member 16 May 1982 16 May 1984 SKJ SR Croatia
Member 16 May 1984 16 May 1986 SKJ SR Croatia
Member 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ SR Montenegro
Member Abdulah Mutapčić 16 May 1982 16 May 1984 SKJ SR Bosnia and Herzegovina
Member 16 May 1984 16 May 1986 SKJ SR Bosnia and Herzegovina
Member 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ SR Macedonia
Member Janko Smole 16 May 1982 16 May 1984 SKJ SR Slovenia
Member 16 May 1984 16 May 1986 SKJ SR Slovenia
Member 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ SAP Vojvodina
Member 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ SR Croatia
Member 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ SAP Kosovo
State Secretaries
Foreign Affairs Lazar Mojsov 16 May 1982 16 May 1984 SKJ N/A (SR Macedonia)
Foreign Affairs Raif Dizdarević 16 May 1984 16 May 1986 SKJ N/A (SR Bosnia and Herzegovina)
National Defense Branko Mamula 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ N/A (SR Croatia)
Interior Stane Dolanc 16 May 1982 16 May 1984 SKJ N/A (SR Slovenia)
Interior Dobroslav Ćulafić 16 May 1984 16 May 1986 SKJ N/A (SR Montenegro)
Finance 16 May 1982 13 December 1983 SKJ N/A (SR Slovenia)
Finance 13 December 1983 16 May 1986 SKJ N/A (SR Slovenia)
Foreign Trade Milenko Bojanić 16 May 1984 16 May 1986 SKJ N/A (SR Serbia)
Market and Prices 16 May 1982 16 May 1984 SKJ N/A (SR Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Market and Prices 16 May 1984 16 May 1986 SKJ N/A (SAP Vojvodina)
Justice 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ N/A (SR Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Information 16 May 1982 17 July 1985 SKJ N/A (SR Macedonia)
Information 17 July 1985 16 May 1986 SKJ N/A (SR Serbia)
Chairs
Energy & Industry 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ N/A (SR Croatia)
Agriculture 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ N/A (SR Montenegro)
Transport & Communications Nazmi Mustafa 16 May 1982 16 May 1984 SKJ N/A (SAP Kosovo)
Transport & Communications 16 May 1984 16 May 1986 SKJ N/A (SAP Kosovo)
Labour, Health & Social Protection 16 May 1982 16 May 1986 SKJ N/A
Veterans & Disabled Persons Dragomir Nikolić 16 May 1982 16 May 1984 SKJ N/A
Veterans & Disabled Persons 16 May 1984 16 May 1986 SKJ N/A (SR Macedonia)
Legislation 16 May 1982 16 July 1983 SKJ N/A (SR Slovenia)
Legislation 16 July 1983 16 May 1986 SKJ N/A (SR Serbia)

References[]

  1. ^ a b c d Curtis, Glenn (1992). "Yugoslavia : a country study". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. pp. 185–186. Retrieved 2020-11-12.
  2. ^ a b Durovia, Dragoljub (1974). Constitution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (PDF). Dopisna delavska univerza. pp. 270–274.
  3. ^ Directorate of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency (1987). Yugoslavia: Federal Executive Council: a reference aid. Central Intelligence Agency. pp. 2-Dimensional Graphic.
  4. ^ "Parliament Vote Revises Yugoslavia's Constitution". timesmachine.nytimes.com. Retrieved 2020-11-12.
  5. ^ "YUGOSLAVS ELECT TITO AS PRESIDENT; Deputies Vote 568 to 1 to Place Marshal in New Post Under Revised Constitution". timesmachine.nytimes.com. Retrieved 2020-11-12.
  6. ^ a b "Yugoslavs Plan Cabinet Set-Up But Tito Will Remain the Boss". timesmachine.nytimes.com. Retrieved 2020-11-12.
  7. ^ Curtis, Glenn (1992). "Yugoslavia : a country study". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. pp. 50–51. Retrieved 2020-11-12.
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