Hyperinflation in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

500 billions

Between 1992 and 1994, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) experienced the second-longest period of hyperinflation in world economic history.^[1] This period spanned 22 months, from March 1992 to January 1994. Inflation peaked at a monthly rate of 313 million percent in January 1994.^[2] Daily inflation was 62%, with an inflation rate of 2.03% in 1 hour being higher than the annual inflation rate of many developed countries. The inflation rate in January 1994, converted to annual levels, reached 116,545,906,563,330 percent (116.546 trillion percent, or 1.16 × 10¹⁴ percent). During this period of hyperinflation in FR Yugoslavia, store prices were stated in conditional units – point, which was equal to the German mark. The conversion was made either in German marks or in dinars at the current "black market" exchange rate that often changed several times per day.^[3]

The concept of inflation[]

The word "inflation" originates from the Latin word "inflare," meaning to blow or expand.^[4] The word inflation, in the sense of inflating money circulation, was used for the first time in economic literature in the book, "The Big Paper Deception or the Approximation of a Financial Explosion" published by Alexander Demler^[5] in New York in 1864. The book was published during the American Civil War where, due to four years of conflict between the North and the South, there was massive destruction and almost complete paralysis of the economy. Due to its inability to provide funds for financing military expenditures, the government resorted to issuing paper money without cover which caused rapid growth of prices and deterioration of the value of domestic currency.^[6]

Since then, inflation has continued to be a frequently debated political topic and there exists extensive economic literature on the phenomenon. The reason for this lies in the fact that inflation is constantly present in contemporary economies and also because of the many controversial attitudes about inflation. There are severe disputes about its causes, manifestations, consequences, and measures for its removal. The classic concepts define inflation as a situation in which, due to an increase in money circulation, there is a decrease in the value of money, which in turn causes prices to increase. The reason for this is the fact that all of the large-scale inflation at that time was related to excessive money (paper money) emissions and that the huge monetary funds that were standing against the limited commodity funds were created on the market. In other words, a situation has arisen in which "too much money goes for too much quantity of goods."^[7] Modern understandings point to the fact that inflation also occurs when this does not manifest itself in a general increase in prices. This is best seen in the former socialist countries in which there was a strong state price control. The prices remained stable but the shortcomings of certain commodities appeared on the market. However, any increase in monetary circulation and in free-market market economies does not automatically have to lead to a general increase in prices. This is inevitable only in a situation where we have a lot of capacity utilization and full employment of the labor force. On the other hand, a general increase in prices can also occur in cases when there is no increase in money circulation. This is due to distortions in the distribution of national income, the balance of payments and other segments where inflationary pressure arises which leads to a general increase in prices and without a rise in the money supply.

Stabilization program[]

Hyperinflation in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was managed with a heterodox stabilization program. At the beginning of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), an orthodox program was applied instead. Both were relatively successful solutions in the short term, however they were not successful in the long term, which caused them to collapse.

Already at the beginning of 1994, another stabilization program under the name Monetary Reconstruction Program and Economic Recovery (known as the "Avramović Program") was in effect.

Dragoslav Avramović signature

Program professor Dr. Dragoslav Avramović (Monetary Reconstruction and Economic Recovery Program) was adopted in early 1994 after a record hyperinflation that Yugoslavia had previously experienced. It was Yugoslavia in the period 1992–1994. It recorded the third-worst hyperinflation in world economic history, both by its duration of 22 months (March 1992 – January 1994), and at the maximum monthly level (January 1994) of 313,563,558 percent. Such devastating hyperinflation resulted in a drastic deterioration of all important economic indicators. 1993 saw a decline in GDP of 30%, a decrease in investments and industrial production of 37%, and unemployment reached 24.1%. At the same time, there was a huge budget deficit in a situation where public revenues were rapidly decreasing (the decline in tax base due to the decline in economic activity, and – due to sanctions – a significant increase in the "grey economy", which is why a large part of the so-called reduced social product remained untapped, etc.), and public expenditures increased significantly (because of increased social benefits due to deterioration of the economic situation in the country, economic and war support to the insurgent Serbian people in Bosnia and Croatia, the launching of the Bosnian and Croatian wars of independence, refugee assistance, etc.)

The budget deficit was largely financed from the primary issue, and this monetization of the budget deficit was the main cause of hyperinflation. Accordingly, the main measures of Avramović's program were primarily related to the monetary and fiscal sphere, and it can be concluded that this was an orthodox stabilization program. The stabilization program should, above all, accomplish:

– breaking the hyperinflation and returning the lost money function to the dinar,

– to enable fast and stable economic growth,

– a significant increase in wages (drastically depreciated during the period of hyperinflation) and ensuring the minimum safety of all citizens,

– essential reform of the economic system, especially in the financial sphere, and accelerating the transition process, etc.

At the same time, it was necessary to create conditions for the abolition of international sanctions as soon as possible and to open the economy abroad, without which the Program can not be fully implemented. Since it had become clear that the abolition of international economic sanctions could not wait, in order to join the breakdown of devastating hyperinflation, it was decided to start developing and implementing a stabilization program to be realized in two phases.^[8]

The first, short-term phase envisaged monetary reconstruction and anti-inflationary measures aimed at breaking down hyperinflation. It was supposed to be realized in the first 6 months with its own forces, even under conditions of economic sanctions by the international community. The second, long-term phase envisioned essential economic reforms that (while preserving the stability achieved in the first phase) would lead to the economic recovery of the country, which would ensure long-term stable economic growth with an optimal employment rate and the growth of citizens' standards. This phase, as the authors of the Program have pointed out, assumed the abolition of economic sanctions and the flow of "fresh" capital needed for its realization. Since this assumption was not achieved, this second phase had no chance of significant success, as was the case with the first phase of the Program. Therefore, we will only detail the first stage of the Avramović program, because the implementation of the second phase did not occur, as international economic sanctions had not been abolished in the meantime. The first phase of the Monetary Reconstruction Program was realized under conditions of economic sanctions, without aid or any capital inflows, with initial foreign exchange reserves amounting to about 300 million German marks.^[8]

It can be said that in the framework of the Monetary Reconstruction Program, the basic measures were focused on monetary policy, monetary reforms, and fiscal policy. Life in the country after the implementation of the stabilization program began to slowly return to normal. However, it is also important to point out that in these two years, thanks to the gray money issue, according to the estimates of economists from that period, 4.7 billion DEM from the citizens were bought.

The National Bank of Yugoslavia issued 33 banknotes during the stated hyperinflation period, of which 24 were issued in 1993. Yugoslav hyperinflation lasted for 24 months, which is longer than the German crisis after World War I, which lasted 16 months, the Greek crisis, which lasted 13 months, and the Hungarian crisis, which lasted 12 months.^[8]

References[]

^ Hanke, Steve H. (2007-05-07). "The World's Greatest Unreported Hyperinflation". Cato Institute. Retrieved 2019-05-07 – via May 2007 issue of Globe Asia.
^ Bogetic, Zeljko; Petrovic, Pavle; Vujosevic, Zorica (1999-02-01). "The Yugoslav Hyperinflation of 1992-1994: Causes, Dynamics, and Money Supply Process". Journal of Comparative Economics. 27: 335–353.
^ "Yugoslavia: Montenegro Adopts German Mark As Currency -- But With Risks". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Retrieved 2020-02-19.
^ "inflo, inflas, inflare A, inflavi, inflatum - Latin is Simple Online Dictionary". www.latin-is-simple.com. Retrieved 2020-02-19.
^ Leendertz, Ariane (2016), "Geschichte des Max-Planck-Instituts zur Erforschung der Lebensbedingungen der wissenschaftlich-technischen Welt in Starnberg (MPIL) und des Max-Planck-Instituts für Gesellschaftsforschung in Köln (MPIfG)", Handbuch Geschichte der deutschsprachigen Soziologie, Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, pp. 1–13, doi:10.1007/978-3-658-07998-7_58-1, ISBN 9783658079987
^ "Inflation In The Confederacy". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 23 August 2020.
^ Burton, John (1972), "Theories of Inflation", Wage Inflation, Macmillan Education UK, pp. 15–20, doi:10.1007/978-1-349-01407-1_3, ISBN 9780333133422
^ ^a ^b ^c Petrović, Pavle; Bogetić, Željko; Vujošević, Zorica (1999). "The Yugoslav Hyperinflation of 1992–1994: Causes, Dynamics, and Money Supply Process" (PDF). Journal of Comparative Economics. 27 (2): 335–353. doi:10.1006/jcec.1999.1577.

v t Financial crises
Banking panic Commodity price shocks Credit crunch Credit cycle Currency crisis Debt crisis Energy crisis Flash crash Hyperinflation Liquidity crisis Minsky moment Stock market crash
Pre-1000	Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 CE)
1000–1760	Great Bullion Famine (c. 1400–c. 1500) The Great Debasement (1544–1551) Dutch Republic stock market crashes (c. 1600–1760) Kipper und Wipper (1621–1623) Tulip mania crash (1637) South Sea bubble crash (1720) Mississippi bubble crash (1720)
1760–1840	Amsterdam banking crisis of 1763 Bengal bubble crash (1769–1784) Crisis of 1772 Dutch Republic financial collapse (c. 1780–1795) Panic of 1785 Copper Panic of 1789 Panic of 1792 Panic of 1796–1797 Danish state bankruptcy of 1813 Post-Napoleonic Irish grain price and land use shocks (1815–1816) Panic of 1819 Panic of 1825 Panic of 1837
1840–1870	European Potato Failure (1845–1856) Great Irish Famine Highland Potato Famine Panic of 1847 Panic of 1857 Panic of 1866 Black Friday (1869)
1870–1914	Panic of 1873 Paris Bourse crash of 1882 Panic of 1884 Arendal crash (1886) Baring crisis (1890) Encilhamento (1890–1893) Panic of 1893 Australian banking crisis of 1893 Black Monday (1894) Panic of 1896 Panic of 1901 Panic of 1907 Shanghai rubber stock market crisis (1910) Panic of 1910–11
1918–1939	Early Soviet hyperinflation (1917–1924) Weimar Republic hyperinflation (1921–1923) Shōwa financial crisis (1927) Wall Street Crash of 1929 Panic of 1930
1973–1982	1970s energy crisis (1973–1980) 1973 oil crisis 1973–1974 stock market crash Secondary banking crisis of 1973–1975 Steel crisis (1973–1982) Latin American debt crisis (1975–1982) 1976 British sterling crisis 1979 oil crisis Brazilian hyperinflation (1980–1982)
1982–2007	Brazilian hyperinflation (1982–1994) Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash (1982) Chilean crisis of 1982 1983 Israel bank stock crisis Black Saturday (1983) Savings and loan crisis (1986–1995) Black Monday (1987) 1988–1992 Norwegian banking crisis Japanese asset price bubble crash (1990–1992) Rhode Island banking crisis (1990–1992) 1991 Indian economic crisis 1990s Swedish financial crisis (1991–1992) 1990s Finnish banking crisis (1991–1993) 1990s Armenian energy crisis (1991–1995) Cuban Special Period (1991–2000) Black Wednesday (1992) Yugoslav hyperinflation (1992–1994) 1994 bond market crisis Venezuelan banking crisis of 1994 Mexican peso crisis (1994–1996) 1997 Asian financial crisis 1998 Russian financial crisis 1998–99 Ecuador financial crisis Samba effect (1999) Dot-com bubble crash (2000–2004) 2001 Turkish economic crisis South American economic crisis of 2002 2002 Uruguay banking crisis 2003 Myanmar banking crisis 2004 Argentine energy crisis 2007 Chinese stock bubble crash Zimbabwean hyperinflation (2007–)
2007–present	Financial crisis of 2007–2008 Subprime mortgage crisis U.S. bear market of 2007–2009 Global financial crisis in September 2008 Global financial crisis in October 2008 Global financial crisis in November 2008 Global financial crisis in December 2008 2008 Latvian financial crisis 2008–2009 Belgian financial crisis 2008–09 Russian financial crisis 2008–2009 Ukrainian financial crisis 2008–2011 Icelandic financial crisis 2008–2011 Irish banking crisis 2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis Global financial crisis in 2009 Blue Monday Crash 2009 European debt crisis Greek government-debt crisis 2009 Dubai debt standstill Venezuelan banking crisis of 2009–2010 2010–2014 Portuguese financial crisis Energy crisis in Venezuela (2010–) August 2011 stock markets fall 2011 Bangladesh share market scam 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis 2013 Chinese banking liquidity crisis Venezuela economic crisis (2013–) 2014–2016 Brazilian economic crisis Puerto Rican government-debt crisis (2014–) 2014–2017 Russian financial crisis 2015–2016 Chinese stock market turbulence 2015–2016 stock market selloff Brexit stock market crash (2016) Venezuelan hyperinflation (2016–) 2017 Sri Lankan fuel crisis Ghana banking crisis (2017–2018) 2018–2021 Turkish currency and debt crisis (2018–) Lebanese liquidity crisis (2019–) COVID-19 pandemic (2019–) Evergrande liquidity crisis (2021–)
List of banking crises List of economic crises List of sovereign debt crises List of stock market crashes and bear markets

Hyperinflation in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

Contents

The concept of inflation[]

Stabilization program[]

References[]

Further reading[]