Islam
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Islam (/ˈɪslɑːm/;[a] Arabic: اَلْإِسْلَامُ, romanized: al-’Islām, [ɪsˈlaːm] (
listen) "submission [to God]")[1] is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion teaching that Muhammad is a messenger of God.[2][3] It is the world's second-largest religion after Christianity, with 1.9 billion followers or 24.9% of the world's population,[4][5] known as Muslims.[6] Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries.[7][8] Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique,[9] and has guided humanity through prophets, revealed scriptures, and natural signs.[3][10] The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, believed to be the verbatim word of God, as well as the teachings and normative examples (called the sunnah, composed of accounts called hadith) of Muhammad (c. 570 – 632 CE).[11]
Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times before through prophets such as Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.[12] Muslims consider the Quran, in Arabic, to be the unaltered and final revelation of God.[13] Like other Abrahamic religions, Islam also teaches a final judgment with the righteous rewarded in paradise and the unrighteous punished in hell.[14] Religious concepts and practices include the Five Pillars of Islam, which are obligatory acts of worship, as well as following Islamic law (sharia), which touches on virtually every aspect of life and society, from banking and welfare to women and the environment.[15][16] The cities of Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem are home to the three holiest sites in Islam.[17]
From a historical point of view, Islam originated in early 7th century CE in the Arabian Peninsula, in Mecca,[18] and by the 8th century, the Umayyad Caliphate extended from Iberia in the west to the Indus River in the east. The Islamic Golden Age refers to the period traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 13th century, during the Abbasid Caliphate, when much of the historically Muslim world was experiencing a scientific, economic, and cultural flourishing.[19][20][21] The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates such as the Ottoman Empire, trade, and conversion to Islam by missionary activities (dawah).[22]
Most Muslims are of one of two denominations: Sunni (85–90%)[23] or Shia (10–15%).[24][25][26] Sunni and Shia differences arose from disagreement over the succession to Muhammad and acquired broader political significance, as well as theological and juridical dimensions.[27] About 12% of Muslims live in Indonesia, the most populous Muslim-majority country;[28] 31% live in South Asia,[29] the largest percentage of Muslims in the world;[30] 20% in the Middle East–North Africa, where it is the dominant religion;[31] and 15% in sub-Saharan Africa.[31] Sizable Muslim communities can also be found in the Americas, China, and Europe.[32][33] Islam is the fastest-growing major religion in the world.[34][35]
Etymology
In Arabic, Islam (Arabic: إسلام lit. 'submission [to God]') is the verbal noun originating from the verb سلم (salama), from triliteral root س-ل-م (S-L-M), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, sincerity, safeness, and peace.[36] Islam is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root and means "submission" or "total surrender". In a religious context, it means "total surrender to the will of God".[1][37] A Muslim (Arabic: مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". The word "Islam" ("submission") sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. Some verses stress the quality of Islam as an internal spiritual state: "Whoever God wills to guide, He opens their heart to Islam."[i][37]
Others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith.[ii] In the Hadith of Gabriel, Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence).[38][39]
The word "silm" (Arabic: سِلْم) in Arabic means both peace and also the religion of Islam.[40] A common linguistic phrase demonstrating its usage is "he entered into as-silm" (Arabic: دَخَلَ فِي السِّلْمِ) which means "he entered into Islam," with a connotation of finding peace by submitting one's will to the Will of God.[40] The word "Islam" can be used in a linguistic sense of submission or in a technical sense of the religion of Islam, which also is called as-silm which means peace.[40]
Islam itself was historically called Mohammedanism in the English-speaking world. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive, as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion, parallel to Buddha in Buddhism.[41] Some authors, however, continue to use the term Mohammedanism as a technical term for the religious system as opposed to the theological concept of Islam that exists within that system.
Articles of faith
The Islamic creed (aqidah) requires belief in six articles: God, angels, books, prophets, the Day of Resurrection and providence.
Concept of God
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The central concept of Islam is tawḥīd (Arabic:توحيد), the unity of God. Usually thought of as a precise monotheism, but also panentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings.[42] God is described in Chapter 112 of the Quran: Say, “He is God—One and Indivisible; God—the Sustainer ˹needed by all˺. He has never had offspring, nor was He born. And there is none comparable to Him.” No human eyes can see God till the Day Of Judgement.[43] According to Islam, God is transcendent, therefore Muslims do not attribute human forms to God. God is described and referred to by several names or attributes, the most common being Ar-Rahmān(الرحمان) meaning "The Entirely Merciful," and Ar-Rahīm( الرحيم) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are mentioned before reciting every chapter of the Quran except chapter nine.[44][45]
Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "Be, and it is,"[iii][46] and that the purpose of existence is to worship God without associating partners to Him.[iv][47][48] God is not a part of the Christian Trinity.[49] He is viewed as a personal god who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls him.[v][46] There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God, who states: "Your Lord has proclaimed, Call upon Me, I will respond to you."[vi] Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as Taqwa. Allāh is traditionally seen as the personal name of God,[50] a term with no plural or gender being ascribed to it. It is used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ʾilāh (Arabic: إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.[51]
Angels
Belief in angels is fundamental to Islam. The Quranic word for angel (Arabic:ملك malak) derives either from Malaka, meaning "he controlled", due to their power to govern different affairs assigned to them,[52] or from the triliteral root ’-l-k, l-’-k or m-l-k with the broad meaning of a "messenger", just as its counterpart in Hebrew (malʾákh). Unlike the Hebrew word, however, the term is used exclusively for heavenly spirits of the divine world, as opposed to human messengers. The Quran refers to both angelic and human messengers as rasul instead.[53]
The Quran is the principal source for the Islamic concept of angels.[54] Some of them, such as Gabriel and Michael, are mentioned by name in the Quran, others are only referred to by their function. In hadith literature, angels are often assigned to only one specific phenomenon.[55] Angels play a significant role in literature about the Mi'raj, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.[55] Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology, theology and philosophy.[56] Duties assigned to angels include, for example, communicating revelations from God, glorifying God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death.
In Islam, just as in Judaism and Christianity, angels are often represented in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.[57] The Quran describes "Angels as His messengers with wings—two, three, or four."[vii][58] Common characteristics for angels are their missing needs for bodily desires, such as eating and drinking.[59] Their lack of affinity to material desires is also expressed by their creation from light: angels of mercy are created from nūr ('light')[60] in opposition to the angels of punishment created from nār ('fire').[61] Muslims do not generally share the perceptions of angelic pictorial depictions, such as those found in Western art.
Books
The Islamic holy books are the records that most Muslims believe were dictated by God to various prophets. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospel), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both.[62] The Quran (lit. "Recitation") is viewed by Muslims as the final and literal revealed word of God and is widely regarded as the finest literary work in the classical Arabic language.[63][64] Although the Quran is the last verbatim of God towards mankind, communication with God is not enclosed, but an ongoing process.[65](p173) Many Muslims believe that "friends of God" (ʾawliyāʾ) could communicate with God, for example, to predict future events, know God's will and interpret the Quran.[66](p77)
Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl) on many occasions between 610 CE until his death in 632.[67] While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by his companions (sahabah), although the prime method of transmission was orally through memorization.[68] The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (suras) which combined contain 6,236 verses (āyāt). The chronologically earlier suras, revealed at Mecca, are concerned primarily with ethical and spiritual topics. The later Medinan suras mostly discuss social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.[46][69]
The Quran is more concerned with moral guidance than legislation, and is considered the "sourcebook of Islamic principles and values".[70] Muslim jurists consult the hadith ('accounts'), or the written record of Prophet Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[71][72] The set of rules governing proper elocution of recitation is called tajwid. Muslims usually view "the Quran" as the original scripture as revealed in Arabic and that any translations are necessarily deficient, which are regarded only as commentaries on the Quran.[69][73]
Prophets and sunnah
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Prophets (Arabic: أنبياء, anbiyāʾ) communicate with God and receive a divine message. A prophet delivering a message to a nation is called a rasul (Arabic: رسول, rasūl).[74] Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine, though some can perform miracles to prove their claim.[citation needed] According to Islam, all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God. The Quran mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[46]
Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad as the last law-bearing prophet ("Seal of the prophets") to convey the divine message to the entire world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the sunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.[75] This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. Hadiths can be classified, by studying the narration as: "authentic" or "correct" (صَحِيْح, ṣaḥīḥ); "good", hasan (حَسَن, ḥasan); or "weak" (ضَعِيْف, ḍaʻīf), among others. The Kutub al-Sittah are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunnism. Among them is Sahih al-Bukhari, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran.[76][77] Another famous source of hadiths is known as The Four Books, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.[78][79][80]
Because the Quran only briefly covered the lives of biblical prophets, scholars, poets, historians, and storytellers elaborate their stories in Tales of the Prophets. Many of these scholars were also authors of commentaries on the Quran; however, unlike Quran commentaries which follow the order and structure of the Quran itself, the Tales of the Prophets told its stories of the prophets in chronological order—which makes them similar to the Jewish and Christian versions of the Bible.
Besides prophets, saints possess blessings (Arabic:بركة , "baraka") and can perform miracles (Arabic:امات, Karāmāt). Saints rank lower than prophets and they do not intercede for people on the Day of Judgment. However, both the tombs of prophets and saints are visited frequently (Ziyarat). People would seek the advice of a saint in their quest for spiritual fulfillment. Unlike saints in Christianity, Muslim saints are usually acknowledged informal by consensus of common people, not by scholars. Unlike prophets, women like Rabia of Basra, were accepted as saints.[81]
Resurrection and judgment
Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic:يوم القيامة), is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as in the commentaries of scholars describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[82]
On Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة), Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell). The Quran in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief in God (كفر, kufr), and dishonesty. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals,[83][84] will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[85] Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (Arabic:يوم الدين "Day of Religion");[viii] as-Sāʿah (Arabic:الساعة "the Last Hour");[ix] and al-Qāriʿah (Arabic:القارعة "The Clatterer");[x]
Divine destiny
The concept of divine decree and destiny in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر, al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God and is in line with destiny. Al-qadar meaning "power" derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".[86][87] The Quran emphasises that nothing occurs outside of His divine decree: "Say, 'Nothing will ever befall us except what God has destined for us'."[88] Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase "Insha-Allah" meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.[89][90]
Acts of worship
There are five obligatory acts of worship – the Shahada, the five daily prayers, the Zakat alms-giving, fasting during Ramadan and the Hajj pilgrimage – collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (Arkān al-Islām).[91] Apart from these, Muslims also perform other supplemental religious acts.
Testimony
The shahadah,[92] which is the basic creed of Islam, must be recited under oath with the specific statement: "ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله), or, "I testify that none deserves worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."[93] This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed in front of Muslim witnesses.[94][95][96]
Prayer
The five daily ritual prayers are called salah or ṣalāt (Arabic: صلاة|صلاة). Salat is intended to focus the mind on God and is seen as a personal communication with him expressing gratitude and worship. Salat consists of bowing and prostrating to God and praising God. Performing prayers five times a day is compulsory, but flexibility in the timing specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and consist of verses from the Quran.[97] The prayers are done in direction of the Ka'bah. The act of supplicating is referred to as dua. Ritual purity is required for salat, this is achieved through wudu (ritual purification) or ghusl (full body ritual purification).
A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. A large mosque for gathering for Friday prayers or Eid prayers is called masjid jāmi (مَسْجِد جَامِع, "congregational mosque").[98] Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. The Masjid an-Nabawi ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, was also a place of refuge for the poor.[99] Modern mosques have evolved greatly from the early designs of the 7th century and contain a variety of architectural elements such as minarets.[100] The means used to signal the prayer time is a vocal call called the adhan.
Charity
Righteousness is not in turning your faces towards the east or the west. Rather, the righteous are those who believe in God, the Last Day, the angels, the Books, and the prophets; who give charity out of their cherished wealth to relatives, orphans, the poor, needy travelers, beggars, and for freeing captives; who establish prayer, pay alms-tax, and keep the pledges they make; and who are patient in times of suffering, adversity, and in the heat of battle. It is they who are true ˹in faith˺, and it is they who are mindful ˹of God˺.
— Quran (2:177)
Zakāt (Arabic: زكاة, zakāh, 'alms') is a means of welfare in a Muslim society, characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)[101] of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in debt, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat.[xi][102] It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to supererogatory charity, known as Sadaqah) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a "trust from God's bounty". Conservative estimates of annual zakat are that it amounts to 15 times global humanitarian aid contributions.[103] The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income, with each man, woman and child getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually.[104]
Sadaqah means optional charity practiced as a religious duty and out of generosity.[105] Both the Quran and the hadith put much emphasis on spending money for the welfare of needy people,[106] and have urged Muslims to give more as an act of optional charity.[xii][107] The Quran says: "Those who spend their wealth in charity day and night, secretly and openly—their reward is with their Lord."[xiii] One of the early teachings of Muhammad was that God expects men to be generous with their wealth and not to be miserly.[xiv][108] Accumulating wealth without spending it to address the needs of the poor is generally prohibited and admonished.[109] Another kind of charity in Islam is waqf, meaning a perpetual religious endowment of property.
Fasting
During the month of Ramadan, it is obligatory for Muslims to fast. The Ramadan fast (Arabic: صوم, ṣawm) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as smoking, and is performed from dawn to sunset. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining one self for God's sake from what is otherwise permissable and to think of the needy. Certain groups are exempt, including pregnant women.[110][better source needed] In addition, there are other days when fasting is supererogatory.
Pilgrimage
The obligatory Islamic pilgrimage, called the "ḥajj" (Arabic: حج), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham. Pilgrims spend a day and a night on the plains of Mina, then a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat, then spending a night on the plain of Muzdalifah; then moving to Jamarat, symbolically stoning the Devil,[111] then going to the city of Mecca and walking seven times around the Kaaba, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, then walking seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, Hagar, while she was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.[112] All Muslim men should wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.[113][114] Another form of pilgrimage, umrah, is supererogatory and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Medina is also a site of Islamic pilgrimage and Jerusalem, the city of many Islamic prophets, contains the Al-Aqsa Mosque, which used to be the direction of prayer before Mecca.
Quranic recitation and memorization
Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Reciting the Quran with elocution (tajwid) has been described as an excellent act of worship.[115] Pious Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.[116] In Muslim societies, any social program generally begins with the recitation of the Quran.[116] One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer") who, it is said, will be able to intercede for ten people on the Last Judgment Day.[115] Apart from this, almost every Muslim memorizes some portion of the Quran because they need to recite it during their prayers.
History
Muhammad (610–632)
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Islamic tradition views Muhammad (c. 570 – June 8, 632) as the seal of the prophets, sent by God to the rest of mankind.[117][118] During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, according to the earliest surviving biographies, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God, conveyed to him through the archangel Gabriel while he was meditating in a cave.[118] Muhammad's companions memorized and recorded the content of these revelations, known as the Quran.[119]
During this time, while in Mecca, Muhammed preached to the people, imploring them to abandon polytheism and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi. The Meccan elite profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba and felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and that in the process he gave ideas to the poor and slaves.[120][121] Muhammad, who was accused of being a poet, a madman or possessed, presented the challenge of the Quran to imitate the like of the Quran in order to disprove him. The Meccan authorities persecuted Muhammad and his followers, including a boycott of Muhammad's clan to withdraw their protection of him. This resulted in the Migration to Abyssinia of some Muslims (to the Aksumite Empire).
After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans, Muhammad's relatives, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") in AD 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (the Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. The Constitution of Medina was formulated, instituting a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, Christian, and pagan communities of Medina, bringing them within the fold of one community—the Ummah.[122][b]
The Constitution established:[128]
- the security of the community
- religious freedoms
- the role of Medina as a sacred place (barring all violence and weapons)
- the security of women
- stable tribal relations within Medina
- a tax system for supporting the community in the time of conflict
- parameters for exogenous political alliances
- a system for granting protection of individuals
- a judicial system for resolving disputes where non-Muslims could also use their own laws and have their own judges.
All the tribes signed the agreement to defend Medina from all external threats and live in harmony amongst themselves. Within a few years, two battles took place against the Meccan forces: first, the Battle of Badr in 624—a Muslim victory—and then a year later, when the Meccans returned to Medina, the Battle of Uhud, which ended inconclusively.[citation needed]
The Arab tribes in the rest of Arabia then formed a confederation and during the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627) besieged Medina, intent on finishing off Islam. In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. After the signing of the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, many more people converted to Islam. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.[129] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.[130]
The earliest three generations of Muslims are known as the Salaf, with the companions of Muhammad being known as the Sahaba. Many of them, such as the largest narrator of hadith Abu Hureyrah, recorded and compiled what would constitute the sunnah.
Caliphate and civil strife (632–750)
Following Muhammad's death in 632, Muslims disagreed over who would succeed him as leader. The first four successors – Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib – are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs").[131] Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Qur'an and reunification of Arabia through the Ridda wars.[132] Under Umar, the caliphate expanded rapidly as Muslims scored major victories over the Persian and Byzantine empires.[133] Uthman was elected in 644 and oversaw the . The assassination of Uthman in 656 plunged the caliphate into the first civil war. The next caliph, Ali, fought against three separate factions in the Battle of the Camel, Battle of Siffin and Battle of Nahrawan, respectively. The Kharijites assassinated Ali in 661. To avoid further fighting, Ali's son Hasan ibn Ali signed a peace treaty abdicating to Mu'awiyah, which began the Umayyad dynasty.[134] These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to the Sunni-Shia schism, with the Shia believing leadership belonging to Ali and the ahl al-bayt.[135] The succession of Mu'awiyah by his son Yazid I sparked the "second civil war". During the Battle of Karbala, Husayn ibn Ali and other descendants of Muhammad were massacred; the event has been annually commemorated by Shia ever since. Sunni Islam and Shia Islam differ in some respects.[136]
The Murji'ah was early Islamic sect that taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone and that wrongdoers might be considered misguided but not denounced as unbelievers.[137] They urged unity among Muslims, and their conciliatory principles made them popular. Abu Hanifa, founder of the Hanafi (c. 699–767) school of Sunni jurisprudence, was often associated with the Murji'ah.[138] In his al-Fiqh al-Akbar I he lay down probably the oldest surviving work regarding early Muslim creed, advocating respect for all the companions of Muhammad, withholding judgment regarding Uthman and Ali and predeterminism. His works were fundamental to later Sunni theology, Hanbalism being an exception.[138]
The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[139] Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, often helped Muslims take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.[140][141]
The generation after the death of Muhammad but contemporaries of his companions are known as the Tabi'un, followed by the Tabi‘ al-Tabi‘in. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the influential committee, The Seven Fuqaha of Medina,[142][143] headed by Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr.[144] Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta,[145] as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.[146][147][148]
The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented non-Arab converts (mawali), poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750.[149][150]
The first Muslim states independent of a unified Islamic state emerged from the Berber Revolt (739/740-743).
Classical era (750–1258)
Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.[151] During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as Bukhari and Muslim compiled the major Sunni hadith collections while scholars like Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i, while the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq formed the Ja'fari jurisprudence. In the 9th century, al-Shafi'i provided a theoretical basis for Islamic law and introduced its first methods by a synthesis between the proto-rationalism of Iraqi jurisprudence and the pragmatic approach of the Hejaz traditions, in his book ar-Risālah.[152] He also codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.[151] However, Islamic law would not be codified until 1869.[153] In the 9th century Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, that became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam, the Tafsir al-Tabari.
Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Tasawwuf or Sufism.[154][155] Hasan al Basri opposed the Umayyad governors of Iraq and the violent rebellion of the Kharijites. Connected to his political dissent was his rigorist view of sin: He denied God was the source of all human actions, emphasized responsibility and free will instead. For Hasan al Basri, although God knows the actions of people, good and evil comes from abuse of free will and the devil.[156][c] Basran al Wasil ibn Ata (d. 748), an associate of Hasan al-Basri is usually considered the originator, along with Amr ibn Ubayd (699-761) of Mu‘tazilism, a school of thought ultimately rooted in Greek philosophy and known for upholding the doctrine of free-will.[158] However, the main doctrine, the Five Principles, is probably developed by Abu’l-Hudhayl al-Allaf (c. 753–841).[159]
Abbasid Caliphs Mamun al Rashid and Al-Mu'tasim made the Mu'tazilite theology an official creed. Ahmad ibn Hanbal opposed most of the Mu'tazilite doctrines, for which he was imprisoned and sent to an unlit Baghdad prison cell for nearly thirty months.[160] He became a representative for traditionalistic Sunni theology, trying to minimalize reason and applying to literal readings. Later Sunnis also condemned the Mutazilite idea of the creation of the Quran.[156] Al-Ash'ari and Maturidi founded the scholastic theology of Sunni Islam (kalam) Ash'arism and Maturidism, respectively.
By the end of the 9th century, Ismaili Shias spread in Iran, whereupon the city of Multan became a target of activistic Sunni politics.[161] In 930, the Ismaili group known as the Qarmatians rebelled unsuccessfully against the Abbassids, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, which was eventually retrieved.[162]
With the expansion of the Abbasid Caliphate into the Sasanian Empire, Islam adapted many Hellenistic and Persian concepts, imported by thinkers of Iranian or Turkic origin.[163][164] Philosophers such as Al-Farabi (872 – 950/951) and Avicenna (c. 980 – June 1037) sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like Al-Ghazali (c. 1058 – 1111) argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed.[165]
This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age".[166] Avicenna pioneered the science of experimental medicine,[167] and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials.[168] His two most notable works, The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, were used as standard medicinal texts in the Islamic world and later in Europe. Amongst his contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases,[167] and the introducing clinical pharmacology.[169] In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr.[170] Public hospitals established during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word,[171][172] and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.[173][174] The Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.[175] The doctorate is argued to date back to the licenses to teach in Islamic law schools.[176] Standards of experimental and quantification techniques, as well as the tradition of citation,[177] were introduced. An important pioneer in this, Ibn al-Haytham (c. 965 – c. 040) is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist".[178][179][180][181] The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.[177] It is argued that the data used by Copernicus for his heliocentric conclusions was gathered and that Al-Jahiz (776–868/869) proposed a theory of natural selection.[182][183] The Persian poet Ferdowsi (940–1019/1025) wrote his epic poem Shahnameh. Legal institutions introduced include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).[184][185]
While the Abbasid Caliphate suffered a decline following the reign of Al-Wathiq (842–847) and Al-Mu'tadid (892–902),[186] the Mongol Empire put an end to the Abbassid dynasty in 1258.[187] During its decline, the Abbasid Caliphate disintegrated into minor states and dynasties, such as the Tulunid and the Ghaznavid dynasty. The Ghaznavid dynasty was a Muslim dynasty established by Turkic slave-soldiers from another Islamic empire, the Samanid Empire.[188] Two other Turkish tribes, the Karahanids and the Seljuks, converted to Islam during the 10th century. They were later subdued by the Ottomans, who share the same origin and language. The Seljuks played an important role in the revival of Sunnism, when Shi'ism increased its influence. The Seljuk military leader Alp Arslan financially supported sciences and literature and established the Nezamiyeh university in Baghdad.[189]
Religious missions converted Volga Bulgaria to Islam. In the Indian Subcontinent, during the Delhi Sultanate, the Indian Islamic missionaries achieved their greatest success in terms of dawah and the number of converts to Islam.[190][191] The Delhi Sultanate is known for enthroning one of the few female rulers in Islamic history, Razia Sultana.[192] Many Muslims also went to China to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the Song dynasty.[193]
Pre-Modern era (1258–18th century)
After the Mongol conquests and the final decline of the Abbasid Caliphate, the Mongol Empire enabled cross-cultural exchanges throughout Asia. People could practice any religion as long as it did not interfere with the interests of the ruling Khan. The new social and political tolerance brought by the Ilkhanate, which was ruled by the grandson of Genghis Khan and had converted to Sunni Islam, allowed science and arts to flourish even in previously forbidden aspects[194] and extended Middle Eastern influence up to China. The Ilkhans justified their rule with Chinggissid descendence and as defenders of Islam, perhaps even claiming to legacy of the Abbasid Caliphate.[66](p59) Some Sufi writers, like and , regarded the Mongol's conquest of Muslim rulers as a legitimate punishment of God, as the Mongols and Turks were more pious than the ulama, ascetics and muftis during this time.[66](p81) Jalaluddin Rumi (1207 – 1273) wrote his Masnawi, believed to be "sent down" from God, and understood as the Quran's proper explanation (tafsir), [66](p97) still one of the best selling poets in America.[195][196] The Turks probably found similarities between Sufi rituals and Shaman practices.[197] Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam.[d] Shamanism influenced Muslims in Anatolia, Central-Asia and Balkans.[197]
Ibn Taymiyya (1263–1328) promoted a puritanical form of Islam,[198] rejecting philosophical approaches and much of established exegetical methods in favor of simpler theology.[198] He called for a jihad against the Crusaders, the Mongols, and those he deemed heretics.[199] His writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.[200]
The Timurid Renaissance was observed in the Timurid Empire based in Central Asia. Ruled by the Timurid dynasty, it experienced phenomenal growth in the fields of arts and sciences, covering both the eastern and western world.[201] Outstanding throughout the stages of the Renaissance were the inventions of numerous devices and the constructions of Islamic learning centres, mosques, necropolises and observatories. Herat, like Florence the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance, was the focal point of a cultural rebirth.[202][203] Such aspects were seen to be strongly influenced across Islamic Gunpowder empires, mainly in Mughal India.[204][205][206][207]
The Reconquista launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia succeeded in 1492. Through Muslim trade networks, the activity of Sufi orders, and the conquests of the Gunpowder Empires, Islam spread into Sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia and the Malay archipelago.[37][208] Conversion to Islam, however, was not a sudden abandonment of old religious practices; rather, it was typically a matter of "assimilating Islamic rituals, cosmologies, and literatures into... local religious systems".[209] Throughout this expanse, Islam blended with local cultures everywhere, as illustrated by the prophet Muhammad's appearance in Hindu epics and folklore.[210] Muslims in China, who were descended from earlier immigrants, began to assimilate by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.[211][212]
The Ottoman Caliphate, under the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire, was the last caliphate of the late medieval and the early modern era. It is important to note that a symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. According to Ottoman historiography, the legitimation of a ruler is attributed to Sheikh Edebali who interpreted a dream of Osman Gazi as God's legitimation of his reign.[213] Since Murad I's conquest of Edirne in 1362, the caliphate was claimed by the Turkish sultans of the empire.[214] During the period of Ottoman growth, claims on caliphal authority were recognized in 1517 as Selim I became the "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques" in Mecca and Medina through the conquering and unification of Muslim lands, strengthening their claim to the caliphate in the Muslim world.[215] The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans,[216] as Sufi-mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished.[217][218] Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe.[219] In Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims, and to ensure security and harmony within its borders in the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.[220]
The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.[221] At that time, the majority and oldest group among the Shia, the Zaydis, named after the great-grandson of Ali, the scholar Zayd ibn Ali, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.[222][223][224] The ensuing conversion of Iran to Twelver Shia Islam ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shiism over the Zaidi and Ismaili sects.[225] Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja'farism.[226] However, Ja'farism failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.[227]
In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire. The Mughals made major contributions to Islamic architecture, including the Taj Mahal and Badshahi mosque, and compiled the Fatwa Alamgiri. Mughal India surpassed Qing China to become the world's largest economy, worth 25% of world GDP,[228][229][230] with the Bengal Subah signalling the proto-industrialization and showing signs of the Industrial revolution.[231] After Mughal India's collapse, Tipu Sultan's Kingdom of Mysore based in South India, which witnessed partial establishment of sharia-based economic and military policies i.e. Fathul Mujahidin, replaced Bengal ruled by the Nawabs of Bengal as South Asia's foremost economic territory.[232][233] After Indian independence, the Nizams of Hyderabad remained as the major Muslim princely state until the Annexation of Hyderabad by the modern Republic of India.[234]
Modern era (18th – 20th centuries)
During the 18th century, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab founded a military movement that opposed the Ottoman Sultanate as an illegitimate entity. The movement call for a return to the principles of Islam based on the theology of Ahmad ibn Hanbal.[235][236] He was deeply influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim and condemned many traditional Islamic practices, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or Saints, as sin.[236] During this period he formed an alliance with the Saud family, who founded the Wahhabi sect. This revival movement allegedly seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of what they see as later innovations. Their ideology led to the desecration of shrines around the world, including that of Muhammad and his companions in Mecca and Medina.[237][238] Many pan-Arab Islamists like Muhammad Rashid Rida had regarded the Caliphate as an Arab right taken away by the Turks. Therefore, they rebelled against the Ottoman Sultanate until the Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.[239] Concurrently Ibn Saud conquered Mecca, the "heartland of Islam", and enforced Wahhabi doctrines as part of his newly established Islamic state.[240]
The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially relative to the non-Muslim European powers. This decline was evident culturally; while Taqi al-Din ibn Ma'ruf founded an observatory in Istanbul and the Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single Muslim-majority country with a major observatory by the twentieth century.[241] By the 19th century; the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India.[242] As a response to Western Imperialism, many intellectuals sought to reform Islam. They aimed to unite Muslims into one international brotherhood with collective opinions and goals.[243] For many such reformers, theological and religious matters played only a marginal role. They focused on social aspects within Muslim communities instead. In the 19th century, the Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.
The Barelwi movement, founded in India, emphasises the primacy of Islamic law over adherence to Sufi practices and personal devotion to the prophet Muhammad.[244] It grew from the writings of Ahmed Raza Khan, Fazl-e-Haq Khairabadi, Shah Ahmad Noorani and Mohammad Abdul Ghafoor Hazarvi in the backdrop of an intellectual and moral decline of Muslims in British India.[245] The movement was a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices, and grew in response to the Deobandi movement.[246] The movement is famous for the celebration of Mawlid and today, is spread across the globe with followers also in Pakistan, South Africa, United States, and United Kingdom among other countries.[247]
At the end of the 19th century, Muslim reformers like Muhammad 'Abduh, Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, etc sought to reconcile Islam with the social and intellectual ideas of the Age of Enlightenment by purging Islam from alleged alterations and adhering to the basic tenets held during the Rashidun era. Their movement is regarded as the precursor to Islamic Modernism.[248] Beginning with the French intellectual Loius Massignon in 1919, they were often labelled by the Western scholars as Salafiyya - a technical term of theology - to denote broad swathes of Muslim modernists who were scripture-oriented; yet open to the ideals of Enlightenment.[249][250] However, after the First World War, Western colonialism of Muslim lands and the advancement of secularist trends; Islamic reformers felt betrayed by the Arab nationalists and underwent a crisis. This schism was epitomised by the ideological transformation of Sayyid Rashid Rida, a pupil of 'Abduh, who began to revive the treatises of Hanbali theologian Ibn Taymiyyah and became the "forerunner of Islamist thought". Rida transformed the Reformation into a movement primarily concerned about protecting Islamic culture, identity, and politics from Western influences. He advocated for a theological doctrine that emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state; in which the ulema (Islamic scholars) would play a leading role. Rida's fundamentalist doctrines would be later adopted by Islamic scholars and movements like the Muslim Brotherhood.[251] Unlike 'Abduh and Afghani, Rida and his disciples susbcribed to the Hanbali theology. They would openly campaign against adherents of other schools, like the Shi'ites, who were critical of Wahhabi religious interpretations.[252]
On 3 March 1924, the first President of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as part of his secular reforms, constitutionally abolished the institution of the caliphate. The Ottoman Caliphate, the world's last widely recognized caliphate, was no more and its powers within Turkey were transferred to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the parliament of the newly formed Turkish Republic and the Directorate of Religious Affairs.[253][254]
Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (most from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[255] Migration from Syria and Lebanon was the biggest contributor to the Muslim population in Latin America. The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.[256] Muslim immigrants began arriving largely from former colonies in several Western European nations since the 1960s, many as guest workers.
Postmodern times (20th century–present)
Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani and his acolyte Muhammad Abduh have been credited as forerunners of the Islamic revival.[257] Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam.[258] Islamist groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often despite being banned.[259] In Iran, revolution replaced a secular regime with an Islamic state. In Turkey, the Islamist AK Party has democratically been in power for about a decade, while Islamist parties did well in elections following the Arab Spring.[260] The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim-majority countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[261]
Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions.[262] Salafism has deepening worldwide.[263][264][265] This has led to internet debates between salafis and traditional institutions, the latter of which are sometimes seen as puppets of the state.[264] The internet has also led to more "individualized" interpretations of Islam.[266] Liberal Muslims attempt to reconcile religious tradition with secular governance and human rights.[267][268] Women's issues receive significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam.[269] In many places, the prevalence of the hijab is growing increasingly common[270] and the percentage of Muslims favoring sharia has increased.[271]
Secular powers such as the Chinese Red Guards closed many mosques and destroyed Qurans,[272] and Communist Albania became the first country to ban the practice of every religion.[273] About half a million Muslims were killed in Cambodia by communists who, some argue, viewed them as their primary enemy and wished to exterminate them since they stood out and worshiped their own god.[274] In Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were banned in official buildings, as also happened in Tunisia.[275][276] Tensions between Saudi Arabia and Iran have impacted the Middle East.[277]
It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high fertility-rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups".[278] The religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith".[279] Perhaps as a sign of these changes, most experts agree Islam is growing faster than any other faith in East and West Africa.[280][281]
Denominations
Sunni
The largest denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which makes up 85–90% of all Muslims,[26] and is arguably the world's largest religious denomination.[282] Sunni derives from the word sunnah, which means "the tradition [of Muhammad]".[283][284][285][286] Sunnis attach great importance to the six major hadith works. For legal matters, Sunnis often follow one of four schools of jurisprudence, Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i. Each school considers the other equally legitimate.[16][287]
Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad. Sunnis believe that God did not specify any particular person to succeed Muhammad, leaving it up to the community to elect a leader who is righteous and just. Sunnis commonly accept the companions of Muhammad as reliable for interpreting Islamic affairs.[288]
Sunni schools of theology encompass Asharism founded by Al-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936), Maturidi by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 CE) and traditionalist theology under the leadership of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE). Traditionalist theology is characterized by its adherence to a literal understanding of the Quran and the Sunnah, the belief in the Quran being uncreated and eternal, and opposition to reason (kalam) in religious and ethical matters.[289] On the other hand, Maturidism asserts, scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone,[290] but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. Asharism holds ethics can derive just from divine revelation, but not from human reason. However, Asharism accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.[291]
In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.[292] A similar movement called Ahl al-Hadith also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The Nurcu Sunni movement was by Said Nursi (1877–1960);[293] it incorporates elements of Sufism and science,[293][294] and has given rise to the Gülen movement.
Shia
Shi'ism is the second largest branch of Islam and constitutes 10–15% of Muslims.[295][24][296][26] The doctrinal causes for the split between Sunnis and Shi'ites date back to the very founding of Islam, with Shia Muslims holding that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him,[297] most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the Muslims as a result of the choice made by some of Muhammad's other companions at Saqifah. This view primarily contrasts with that of Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abu Bakr, who was appointed caliph by a group of senior Muslims at Saqifah, to be the first rightful caliph after Muhammad.[298] Although there are many Shia subsects, modern Shia Islam is mainly divided into three main groupings: Twelvers (the largest and most influential group), Ismailis and Zaidi, divided along the lines of contrasting beliefs about the succession of the imams.[299]
Ibadi
Ibadism dates back to the early days of Islam and is today practiced by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~ 0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in Oman.[300] The movement rose to prominence in the Hejaz region in the 740s, when the Ibadis launched an armed insurrection against the Umayyad Caliphate. Ibadims is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the Khawarij movement, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers.
Other denominations
- Quranists are Muslims who generally believe that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the Quran, rejecting the Sunnah, thus partially or completely doubting the religious authority, reliability or authenticity of the hadith literature, which they claim are fabricated.[301] From the 19th century onward, hadith were questioned by Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Abdullah Chakralawi, Ghulam Ahmad Parwez,[302] and Muhammad Tawfīq Sidqī .[303][304] Quranists differ in the practice of Islamic rituals from other Muslims in frequency of prayer, details of prayer, zakat, fasting, or the Hajj.[301]
- Bektashi Alevism is a syncretic and heterodox local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical (bāṭenī) teachings of Ali and Haji Bektash Veli.[305] Alevism incorporates Turkish beliefs present during the 14th century,[306] such as Shamanism and Animism, mixed with Shias and Sufi beliefs, adopted by some Turkish tribes. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~ 0.5% - ~ 1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.[307]
- The Ahmadiyya movement is an Islamic reform movement (with Sunni roots) founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad[308] that began in India in 1889 and is practiced by 10 to 20 million Muslims around the world.[309][e] Ahmad claimed to have fulfilled the prophecies concerning the arrival of the "Imam Mahdi" and the "Promised Messiah". However, the movement is rejected by most Muslims as heretical since it believes in ongoing prophethood after the death of Muhammad.[310] Ahmadis have been subject to religious persecution and discrimination since the movement's inception in 1889.[311]
- Mahdavia is an Islamic sect that believes in a 15th-century Mahdi, Muhammad Jaunpuri.
Non-denominational Muslims
Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination.[312][313][314] Prominent figures who refused to identify with a particular Islamic denomination have included Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani,[315] and Muhammad Ali Jinnah.[316] Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.[317][318][319] The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identify in this way.[320]
Derived religions
Some movements, such as the Druze,[321][322][323][324][325] Berghouata and Ha-Mim, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial. Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century. Bábism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri Baha'u'llah founded the Baháʼí Faith.[326] Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late-fifteenth-century Punjab, incorporates aspects of both Islam and Hinduism.[327]
Mysticism
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Sufism (Arabic: تصوف, tasawwuf), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God. Classical Sufi scholars defined Tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[328][329] Hasan al-Basri, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,[330] emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Ismaili Shias, as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy have developed mystical interpretations of Islam.[331]
Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam, just like the sharia.[332] Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.[333][334][332] Historian Nile Green argued that Islam in the Medieval period, was more or less Sufism.[66](p24) Popular devotional practices such as the veneration of Sufi saints have been viewed as innovations from the original religion from followers of salafism, who have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations.
Sufi congregations form orders (tariqa) centered around a teacher (wali) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.[335] Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.[154][336][337] Sufi influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement defends Sufi practices and beliefs with over 200 million followers in south Asia.[338][339][340] Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,[341][342] as well as in African countries like Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.[320][343]
Law
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Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition.[16] It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God's divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its scholarly interpretations.[344][345] The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists.[16]
Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia: the Quran, sunnah (Hadith and Sira), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus).[346] Different legal schools developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad.[344] Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law,ʿibādāt (rituals) and muʿāmalāt (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics.[344] Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram).[344][345] Some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God's will.[345]
Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (muftis). Their legal opinions (fatwa) were taken into account by ruler-appointed judges who presided over qāḍī's courts, and by maẓālim courts, which were controlled by the ruler's council and administered criminal law.[344][345] In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.[345] The Ottoman Empire's 19th-century Tanzimat reforms lead to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify sharia.[347] While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws.[345] Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.[345][348] The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia.[345][348] The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's rights.[349][350][351]
Scholars
Islam, like Judaism, has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. However, there are many terms in Islam to refer to religiously sanctioned positions of Islam. In the broadest sense, the term ulema (Arabic: علماء) is used to describe the body of Muslim scholars who have completed several years of training and study of Islamic sciences. A jurist who interprets Islamic law is called a mufti (مفتي) and often issues legal opinions, called fatwas. A scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (فقيه). Someone who studies the science of hadith is called a muhaddith. A qadi is a judge in an Islamic court. Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh, mullah, and mawlawi. Imam (إمام) is a leadership position, often used in the context of conducting Islamic worship services.
Schools of jurisprudence
A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhhab (Arabic: مذهب). The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali madhahs while the three major Shia schools are the Ja'fari, Zaidi and Isma'ili madhahib. Each differs in their methodology, called Usul al-fiqh ("principles of jurisprudence"). The following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the decision's reasoning is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid literally refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.[352] The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad.[353]
Politics
Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between "matters of church" and "matters of state"; the scholars function as both jurists and theologians. Currently, no government conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, but steps have been taken to implement some of its tenets.[354][355][356] Terms used to refer to traditionally Muslim leaders include Caliph and Sultan and terms associated with traditionally Muslim states include Caliphate, Emirate, Imamate and Khanate.
Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants.[357][358] Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.[359][357] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.[360] Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[357] For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation in 868 AD.[361][362]
Society
Family life
In a Muslim family, some religious ceremonies attend the birth of a child. Immediately after the birth, the words of Adhan are pronounced in the right ear of the child.[363] On the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.[364] The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.[364] Apart from fulfilling the basic needs of food, shelter, and education, the parents or the elderly family members undertake teaching moral qualities, religious knowledge and religious practices to the children.[365] Marriage, which serves as the foundation of a Muslim family, is a civil contract that consists of an offer and acceptance between two qualified parties in the presence of two witnesses. The groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr) to the bride, as stipulated in the contract.[366] Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.[367][368] Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.[369] However, Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives at the same time, per Surah 4 Verse 3. A man does not need approval of his first wife for a second marriage as there is no evidence in the Qur'an or hadith to suggest this. With Muslims coming from diverse backgrounds, including 49 Muslim-majority countries, plus a strong presence as large minorities throughout the world, there are many variations on Muslim weddings. Generally, in a Muslim family, a woman's sphere of operation is the home and a man's corresponding sphere is the outside world. However, in practice, this separation is not as rigid as it appears.[370] Regarding inheritance, a son's share is double that of a daughter's.[xv] Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age have been made a religious obligation.[365][371] The Quran forbids harsh and oppressive treatment of orphaned children while urging kindness and justice towards them, and rebukes those who do not honor and feed them.[xvi]
Certain religious rites are performed during and after the death of a Muslim. Those near a dying man encourage him to pronounce the Shahada as Muslims want their last word to be their profession of faith. After death, according to Islamic burial rituals, members of the same gender bath the body appropriately and enshrouded it in a threefold white garment called kafan.[372] The Salat al-Janazah ("funeral prayer") is said over the bathed and enshrouded body. Placing it on a bier, the body is first taken to a mosque where the funeral prayer is offered for the deceased, and then to the graveyard for burial.
Etiquette and diet
Many practices fall in the category of adab, or Islamic etiquette. This includes greeting others with "as-salamu 'alaykum" ("peace be unto you"), saying bismillah ("in the name of God") before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking. Islamic hygienic practices mainly fall into the category of personal cleanliness and health. Circumcision of male offspring is practiced in Islam. Muslims are restricted in their diet. Prohibited foods include pork products, blood, carrion, and alcohol. All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for them self. Food permissible for Muslims is known as halal food.[373]
Character
The Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, and religious life. Proper moral conduct, good deeds, righteousness, and good character come within the sphere of the moral guidelines.[374] In Islam, the observance of moral virtues is always associated with religious significance because it elevates the religious status of a believer[375] and is often seen as a supererogatory act of worshiping.[376] One typical Islamic teaching on morality is that imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is permissible and just; but forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded as the peak of excellence.[375] The Quran says: "Good and evil cannot be equal. Respond ˹to evil˺ with what is best, then the one you are in enmity with will be like a close friend."[xvii] Thus, a Muslim is expected to act only with good manners as bad manners and deeds earn vices.[377] The fundamental moral qualities in Islam are justice, forgiveness, righteousness, kindness, honesty, and piety.[374] Other mostly insisted moral virtues include but are not limited to charitable activities, fulfillment of promise, modesty (haya) and humility, decency in speech, tolerance, trustworthiness, patience, truthfulness, anger management, and sincerity of intention.
As a religion, Islam emphasizes the idea of having a good character as Muhammad said: "The best among you are those who have the best manners and character."[xviii] In Islam, justice is not only a moral virtue but an obligation to be fulfilled under all circumstances.[378] The Quran and the hadith describe God as being kind and merciful to His creatures, and tell people to be kind likewise. As a virtue, forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam, and is regarded as an important Muslim practice.[379]
Jihad means "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]". In its broadest sense, it is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation". Depending on the object being a visible enemy, the Devil and aspects of one's own self (like sinful desires), different categories of jihad are defined.[380] Jihad also refers to one's striving to attain religious and moral perfection.[381][382] When used without a qualifier, jihad is understood in its military form.[380][381] Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shia and Sufis, distinguish between the "greater jihad", which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the "lesser jihad", defined as warfare.[359][357]
Economics
To reduce the gap between the rich and the poor, Islamic economic jurisprudence encourages trade,[383] discourages the hoarding of wealth and outlaws interest-bearing loans (i.e. usury; Arabic: riba).[384][385] Therefore, wealth is taxed through Zakat, but trade is not taxed. Usury, which allows the rich to get richer without sharing in the risk, is forbidden in Islam. Profit-sharing and venture capital where the lender is also exposed to risk is acceptable.[386] Hoarding of food for speculation is also discouraged.[387]
The taking of land belonging to others is prohibited. The prohibition of usury and the revival of interest-based economies has resulted in the development of Islamic banking. During the time of Muhammad, any money that went to the state was immediately used to help the poor. Then, in AD 634, Umar formally established the welfare state Bayt al-Mal ("House of Wealth"), which was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-Maal ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century, continuing through the Umayyad period, and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced child support and pensions.[388][389][390]
Calendar
| Islamic calendar |
|---|
| Months |
|
Caliph Umar reportedly chose the formal beginning of the Muslim era to be the Hijra in 622 CE, which was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes. It is a lunar calendar with days lasting from sunset to sunset.[391] Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic|عيد الف) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (Arabic|عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj (pilgrimage).[392]
Arts
The term "Islamic culture" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.[393] Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,[394] sometimes referred to as "Islamicate".
In Islamic architecture, varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan containing marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[395] while mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javanese styles.
Islamic art encompasses the visual arts including fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.[396] While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with laws against idolatry, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation, and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.[397]
Great Mosque of Djenné, in the west African country of Mali
Dome in Po-i-Kalyan, Bukhara, Uzbekistan
14th century Great Mosque of Xi'an in China
16th century Menara Kudus Mosque in Indonesia showing Indian influence
The phrase Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region.
Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in Shiraz, Iran
Demographics
A 2015 demographic study reported that 24.1% of the global population, or 1.8 billion people, are Muslims.[398] In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,[399] in 1990 it was 19.9%[31] and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.[278] It has been estimated that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia,[26] with a minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 49 countries are Muslim-majority,[400][401] with 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, and 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh alone.[402][403] Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[404][405] Islam in Europe is the second largest religion after Christianity in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005.[406]
Criticism
Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam's formative stages. Early criticism came from Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.[408] Later, criticism from the Muslim world itself appeared, as well as from Jewish writers and from ecclesiastical Christians.[409][410]
Islamic salvation optimism and its carnality were criticized by Christian writers. Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise led many Christians to conclude that Islam was not a spiritual religion. Although sensual pleasure was also present in early Christianity, as seen in the writings of Irenaeus, the doctrines of the former Manichaean, Augustine of Hippo, led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew.[411]
Defamatory images of Muhammad, derived from early 7th century depictions of the Byzantine Church,[412] appear in the 14th-century epic poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri.[413] Here, Muhammad appears in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism, by establishing another religion after Christianity.[413]
Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Muslim-majority countries, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice.[414] In the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.[415] Both in his public and personal life, others objected to the morality of Muhammad, therefore also the sunnah as a role model.[416]
See also
- Outline of Islam
- Glossary of Islam
- Index of Islam-related articles
- Islamic studies
- Major religious groups
Notes
- ^ There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is /z/ or /s/, and whether the a is pronounced /ɑː/, /æ/ or (when the stress is on the first syllable) /ə/ (Merriam Webster). The most common are /ɪzˈlɑːm, ɪsˈlɑːm, ˈɪzləm, ˈɪsləm/ (Oxford English Dictionary) and /ˈɪzlɑːm, ˈɪslɑːm/ (American Heritage Dictionary).
- ^ Watt argues that the initial agreement came about shortly after the hijra and that the document was amended at a later date—specifically after the battle of Badr (AH [anno hijra] 2, = AD 624).[123] Serjeant argues that the constitution is in fact eight different treaties that can be dated according to events as they transpired in Medina, with the first treaty written shortly after Muhammad's arrival.[124] See also Caetani (1905) who argue that the document is a single treaty agreed upon shortly after the hijra.[125] Wellhausen argues that it belongs to the first year of Muhammad's residence in Medina, before the battle of Badr in 2/624.[126] Even Moshe Gil, a skeptic of Islamic history, argues that it was written within five months of Muhammad's arrival in Medina. [127]
- ^ "Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. His view was opposed by both early Shias and Sunnis.[157]
- ^ "In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challanged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the sixtheenth century.[66](p20-22)
- ^ A figure of 10-20 million represents approximately 1% of the Muslim population. See also: Ahmadiyya by country.
References
Citations of Qur'an and hadith
- ^ Q6:125 Quran 6:125, Q61:7 Quran 61:7, Q39:22 Quran 39:22
- ^ Q9:74 Quran 9:74; Quran 49:14
- ^ Q2:117 Quran 2:117
- ^ Q51:56 Quran 51:56
- ^ Q2:186 Quran 2:186
- ^ Q40:60 Quran 40:60
- ^ Q35:1 Quran 35:1
- ^ Quran 1:4;
- ^ Quran 6:31;
- ^ Quran 101:1
- ^ Quran 9:60. "Zakat expenditures are only for the poor and for the needy and for those employed to collect (Zakat) and for bringing hearts together and for freeing captives and for those in debt (or bonded labour) and for the cause of Allah and for the (stranded) traveller—an obligation (imposed) by Allah. And Allah is Knowing and Wise"
- ^ Quran 2:177
- ^ Quran 2:274
- ^ Quran 107:1–7
- ^ Quran 4:11.
- ^ Quran 89:17–18
- ^ Quran 41:34
- ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 8:73:56
Citations
- ^ a b Lewis, Barnard; Churchill, Buntzie Ellis (2009). Islam: The Religion and The People. Wharton School Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-13-223085-8.
- ^ Esposito, John L. 2009. "Islam." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5. (See also: quick reference.) "Profession of Faith...affirms Islam's absolute monotheism and acceptance of Muḥammad as the messenger of Allah, the last and final prophet."
- ^ a b Peters, F. E. 2009. "Allāh." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World, edited by J. L. Esposito. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530513-5. (See also: quick reference.) "[T]he Muslims' understanding of Allāh is based...on the Qurʿān's public witness. Allāh is Unique, the Creator, Sovereign, and Judge of mankind. It is Allāh who directs the universe through his direct action on nature and who has guided human history through his prophets, Abraham, with whom he made his covenant, Moses/Moosa, Jesus/Eesa, and Muḥammad, through all of whom he founded his chosen communities, the 'Peoples of the Book.'"
- ^ "Muslim Population By Country 2021". World Population Review. Retrieved 22 July 2021.
- ^ "Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050". Pew Research Center. 2 April 2015. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 5 May 2020.
- ^ "Muslim." Lexico. UK: Oxford University Press. 2020.
- ^ "Muslim Majority Countries 2021". worldpopulationreview.com. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
- ^ The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. December 2012. "The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010." DC: Pew Research Center. Article.
- ^ Campo (2009), p. 34, "Allah".
- ^ Özdemir, İbrahim. 2014. "Environment." In The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam, edited by I. Kalin. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-981257-8. "When Meccan pagans demanded proofs, signs, or miracles for the existence of God, the Qurʾān's response was to direct their gaze at nature's complexity, regularity, and order. The early verses of the Qurʾān, therefore, reveal an invitation to examine and investigate the heavens and the earth, and everything that can be seen in the environment.... The Qurʾān thus makes it clear that everything in Creation is a miraculous sign of God (āyah), inviting human beings to contemplate the Creator."
- ^ Goldman, Elizabeth. 1995. Believers: Spiritual Leaders of the World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508240-1. p. 63.
- ^ Reeves, J. C. (2004). Bible and Qurʼān: Essays in scriptural intertextuality. Leiden: Brill. p. 177. ISBN 90-04-12726-7.
- ^ Bennett (2010), p. 101.
- ^ Esposito, John L. (ed.). "Eschatology". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam – via Oxford Islamic Studies Online.
- ^ Esposito (2002b), pp. 17, 111–112, 118.
- ^ a b c d Coulson, Noel James. "Sharīʿah". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 September 2021. (See also: "sharia" via Lexico.)
- ^ Trofimov, Yaroslav. 2008. The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine. Knopf. New York. ISBN 978-0-307-47290-8. p. 79.
- ^ Watt, William Montgomery (2003). Islam and the Integration of Society. Psychology Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-415-17587-6.
- ^ Saliba, George. 1994. A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-8023-7. pp. 245, 250, 256–57.
- ^ King, David A. (1983). "The Astronomy of the Mamluks". Isis. 74 (4): 531–55. doi:10.1086/353360. S2CID 144315162.
- ^ Hassan, Ahmad Y. 1996. "Factors Behind the Decline of Islamic Science After the Sixteenth Century." Pp. 351–99 in Islam and the Challenge of Modernity, edited by S. S. Al-Attas. Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015.
- ^ Arnold, Thomas Walker. The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. pp. 125–258.
- ^ Denny, Frederick. 2010. Sunni Islam: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 3. "Sunni Islam is the dominant division of the global Muslim community, and throughout history it has made up a substantial majority (85 to 90 percent) of that community."
- ^ a b "Field Listing :: Religions". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 6 July 2010. Retrieved 25 October 2010.
Sunni Islam accounts for over 75% of the world's Muslim population." ... "Shia Islam represents 10–15% of Muslims worldwide.
- ^
"Sunni". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 14 June 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam, comprising about 85% of the world's over 1.5 billion Muslims.
- ^ a b c d Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life (2009), p. 1. "Of the total Muslim population, 10–13% are Shia Muslims and 87–90% are Sunni Muslims."
- ^ Tayeb El-Hibri, Maysam J. al Faruqi (2004). "Sunni Islam". In Philip Mattar (ed.). The Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference.
- ^ Pew Forum for Religion and Public Life. April 2015. "10 Countries With the Largest Muslim Populations, 2010 and 2050" (projections table). Pew Research Center.
- ^ Pechilis, Karen; Raj, Selva J. (2013). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-415-44851-2.
- ^ Pillalamarri, Akhilesh (2016). "How South Asia Will Save Global Islam". The Diplomat. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
- ^ a b c The Future of the Global Muslim Population (Report). Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
- ^ "Islam in Russia". Al Jazeera. Anadolu News Agency. 7 March 2018. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
- ^ "Book review: Russia's Muslim Heartlands reveals diverse population", The National, 21 April 2018, retrieved 13 January 2019
- ^ Burke, Daniel (2 April 2015). "The world's fastest-growing religion is..." CNN. Retrieved 18 April 2015.
- ^ Lippman, Thomas W. 7 April 2008. "No God But God." U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 24 May 2020. "Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others."
- ^ "Siin." Lane's Lexicon 4. – via StudyQuran.
- ^ a b c Gardet & Jomier (2012).
- ^ Esposito (2000), pp. 76–77.
- ^ Mahmutćehajić, Rusmir (2006). The mosque: the heart of submission. Fordham University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-8232-2584-2.
- ^ a b c "What Does "Islam" Mean?". Classical Arabic. 20 June 2020. Retrieved 20 June 2020.
- ^ Wilson, Kenneth G. The Columbia Guide to Standard American English. ISBN 0-231-06989-8. p. 291: "Muhammadan and Mohammedan are based on the name of the prophet Mohammed, and both are considered offensive."
- ^ See:
- Esposito (2002b), pp. 74–76
- Esposito (2004), p. 22
- Griffith & Savage (2006), p. 248
- "Tawhid". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
- ^ "Verse (6:103) – English Translation". Quranic Arabic Corpus. Retrieved 11 April 2021.
- ^ Bentley, David (1999). The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book. William Carey Library. ISBN 978-0-87808-299-5.
- ^ Ali, Kecia; Leaman, Oliver (2008). Islam : the key concepts. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-39638-7. OCLC 123136939.
- ^ a b c d Schimmel, Annemarie. "Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
- ^ "Human Nature and the Purpose of Existence". Patheos. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
- ^ Leeming, David. 2005. The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-195-15669-0. p. 209.
- ^ "Surah Al-Ma'idah - 5:73". quran.com. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
- ^ Görke, Andreas, and Johanna Pink Tafsir. Islamic Intellectual History Exploring the Boundaries of a Genre. London: Oxford University Press and The Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 978-0-19-870206-1. p. 478.
- ^ See:
- "God". Islam: Empire of Faith. PBS. Retrieved 18 December 2010.
- Fahlbusch et al (2001), "Islam and Christianity": Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as Allāh.
- L. Gardet. "Allah". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).
- ^ Ali, Syed Anwer. [1984] 2010. Qurʼan, the Fundamental Law of Human Life: Surat ul-Faateha to Surat-ul-Baqarah (sections 1–21). Syed Publications. p. 121.
- ^ Burge, Stephan R. (2011). "The Angels in Sūrat al-Malāʾika: Exegeses of Q. 35:1". Journal of Qur'anic Studies. 10 (1): 50–70. doi:10.3366/E1465359109000230.
- ^ Burge (2015), p. 23.
- ^ a b Burge (2015), p. 79.
- ^ Burge (2015), p. 22.
- ^ Burge (2015), pp. 97–99.
- ^ See:
- Esposito (2002b), pp. 26–28.
- Webb, Gisela. "Angel". In McAuliffe (n.d.)..
- MacDonald, D. B.; Madelung, W. "Malāʾika". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012).. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0642.
- ^ Çakmak (2017), p. 140.
- ^ See:
- "Nūr." The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. – via Encyclopedia.com.
- Hartner, W.; Tj Boer. "Nūr". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0874.
- Elias, Jamal J. "Light". In McAuliffe (2003). doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00261
- ^ See:
- Campo, Juan E. "Nar". In Martin (2004).. – via Encyclopedia.com.
- Fahd, T. "Nār". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0846.
- Toelle, Heidi. "Fire". In McAuliffe (2002). doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00156.
- McAuliffe (2003), p. 45.
- ^ See:
- Accad (2003): According to Ibn Taymiya, although only some Muslims accept the textual veracity of the entire Bible, most Muslims will grant the veracity of most of it.
- Esposito (1998), pp. 6, 12
- Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5
- Peters (2003), p. 9
- Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. "Muhammad". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).
- Hava Lazarus-Yafeh. "Tahrif". In Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (n.d.).
- ^ Chejne, A. (1969) The Arabic Language: Its Role in History, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
- ^ Speicher, K. (1997) in: Edzard, L., and Szyska, C. (eds.) Encounters of Words and Texts: Intercultural Studies in Honor of Stefan Wild. Georg Olms, Hildesheim, pp. 43–66.
- ^ TY - BOOK T1 - The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad A1 - Brockopp, J.E. SN - 9780521886079 T3 - Cambridge Companions to Religion UR - https://books.google.de/books?id=aLm_R5yjcMMC Y1 - 2010 PB - Cambridge University Press ER -
- ^ a b c d e f Peacock, A.C.S. (2019). Islam, Literature and Society in Mongol Anatolia. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108582124. ISBN 9781108582124. S2CID 211657444.
- ^ Esposito (2004), pp. 17–18, 21.
- ^ Al Faruqi; Lois Ibsen (1987). "The Cantillation of the Qur'an". Asian Music (Autumn – Winter 1987): 3–4.
- ^ a b Ringgren, Helmer. "Qurʾān". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 September 2021. "The word Quran was invented and first used in the Qurʼan itself. There are two different theories about this term and its formation."
- ^ Esposito (2004), p. 79.
- ^ "Tafsīr". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 September 2021.
- ^ Esposito (2004), pp. 79–81.
- ^ See:
- Teece (2003), pp. 12–13
- Turner (2006), p. 42
- ^ Esposito, J. L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Vereinigtes Königreich: Oxford University Press, USA. p. 225
- ^ See:
- Martin (2004), p. 666.
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Beginning with Louis Massignon in 1919, it is true that Westerners played a leading role in labeling Islamic modernists as Salafis, even though the term was a misnomer. At the time, European and American scholars felt the need for a useful conceptual box in which to place Muslim figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh, and their epigones, who all seemed inclined toward a scripturalist understanding of Islam but proved open to rationalism and Western modernity .. They chose to adopt salafiyya—a technical term of theology, which they mistook for a reformist slogan and wrongly associated with all kinds of modernist Muslim intellectuals.
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Western colonialists established in these countries political orders... that, even though not professing enmity to Islam and its institutions, left no role for Islam in society. This caused a crisis among Muslim reformists, who felt betrayed not only by the West but also by those nationalists, many of whom were brought to power by the West... Nothing reflects this crisis more than the ideological transformation of Rashid Rida (1865–1935)... He also revived the works of Ibn Taymiyah by publishing his writings and promoting his ideas. Subsequently, taking note of the cataclysmic events brought about by Western policies in the Muslim world and shocked by the abolition of the caliphate, he transformed into a Muslim intellectual mostly concerned about protecting Muslim culture, identity, and politics from Western influence. He supported a theory that essentially emphasized the necessity of an Islamic state in which the scholars of Islam would have a leading role... Rida was a forerunner of Islamist thought. He apparently intended to provide a theoretical platform for a modern Islamic state. His ideas were later incorporated in the works of Islamic scholars. Significantly, his ideas influenced none other than Hassan al-Bannah, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt... Rida’s Islamic fundamentalism has been taken up by the Muslim Brethren, a right wing radical movement founded in 1928,..
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Prior to the fall of the Ottoman Empire, leading reformers who happened to be Salafi in creed were surprisingly open-minded: although they adhered to neo-Hanbali theology,.. The aftermath of the First World War and the expansion of European colonialism, however, paved the way for a series of shifts in thought and attitude. The experiences of Rida offer many examples... he turned against the Shi'is who dared, with reason, to express doubts about the Saudi-Wahhabi project... . Shi'is were not the only victims: Rida and his associates showed their readiness to turn against fellow Salafis who questioned some of the Wahhabis’ religious interpretations.
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Islam is the youngest, the fastest growing, and in many ways the least complicated of the world's great monotheistic faiths. It is based on its own holy book, but it is also a direct descendant of Judaism and Christianity, incorporating some of the teachings of those religions—modifying some and rejecting others.
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Islam, followed by more than a billion people today, is the world's third fastest growing religion.
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- ^ Richard Gauvain Salafi Ritual Purity: In the Presence of God Routledge 2013 ISBN 978-0-7103-1356-0 page 8
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The Pew Forum's estimate of the Shia population (10–13%) is in keeping with previous estimates, which generally have been in the range of 10–15%.
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Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of the tradition, with up to 200 million followers who comprise around 15% of all Muslims worldwide.
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Estimates of around 20 million would be appropriate
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The community currently numbers around 15 million spread around the world
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Anyone who has travelled to Central Asia knows of the non-denominational Muslims—those who are neither Shiites nor Sounites, but who accept Islam as a religion generally.
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Ball State Student Sadie Sial identifies as a non-denominational Muslim, and her parents belong to the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. She has participated in multiple blood drives through the Indiana Blood Center.
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Although many Iranian hardliners are Shi'a chauvinists, Khomeini's ideology saw the revolution as pan-Islamist, and therefore embracing Sunni, Shi'a, Sufi, and other, more nondenominational Muslims
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Condemning the historically prevailing trend of blindly imitating religious leaders, al- Afghani revised to identity himself with a specific sect or imam by insisting that he was just a Muslim and a scholar with his own interpretation of Islam.
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40 per cent called themselves "just a Muslim" according to the Council of American-Islamic relations
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Nineteen said that they are Sunni Muslims, six said they are just Muslim without specifying a sect, two said they are Ahmadi, and two said their families are Alevi
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Many Iraqis take offense at reporters' efforts to identify them as Sunni or Shiite. A 2004 Iraq Centre for Research and Strategic Studies poll found the largest category of Iraqis classified themselves as "just Muslim."
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Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...
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Druze - An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.
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In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.
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As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.
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Most Druze do not consider themselves Muslim. Historically they faced much persecution and keep their religious beliefs secrets.
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- Waines (2003), pp. 93–96
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- Esposito (1998), p. 79
- ^ Newby, Gordon D. (2002). A concise encyclopedia of Islam. Oxford: Oneworld. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-85168-295-9.
- ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2001). Islam : religion, history, and civilization. New York: HarperOne. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-06-050714-5.
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- Quran 5:5
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- Esposito (2002b), p. 111
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- Ghamidi, Javed Ahmad. "The Dietary Laws". Archived from the original on 2 May 2007.
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- Ersilia Francesca. "Slaughter". In McAuliffe (n.d.).
- ^ a b Campo (2009), p. 216.
- ^ a b Nigosian (2004), p. 116.
- ^ Leaman (2006), p. 140.
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- ^ Khadduri, Majid (1984). The Islamic Conception of Justice. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-8018-6974-7.
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- ^ Gray, Joanna, and Orkun Akseli. Financial Regulation in Crisis?: The Role of Law and the Failure of Northern Rock. p. 97.
- ^ See:
- Ibn Majah, Sunan ibn Majah III, hadith 2289
- Mababaya, p. 202
- Krichene, Noureddine. Islamic Capital Markets: Theory and Practice. p. 119.
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- Abu Dawood, Sunan Abu Dawood, hadith 2015.
- Ibn Majah, Sunan ibn Majah III, hadith 2154.
- Iqbal, Zamir, Abbas Mirakhor, Noureddine Krichenne, and Hossein Askari. The Stability of Islamic Finance: Creating a Resilient Financial Environment. p. 75.
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- ^ Ghamidi(a), Javed Ahmad. "Customs and Behavioral Laws". In Ghamidi (2001), pp. 321–333.
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Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (tawhid) and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.
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Books and journals
- Accad, Martin (2003). "The Gospels in the Muslim Discourse of the Ninth to the Fourteenth Centuries: An Exegetical Inventorial Table (Part I)". Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations. 14 (1): 67–91. doi:10.1080/09596410305261. S2CID 170638096.
- Ahmed, Akbar (1999). Islam Today: A Short Introduction to the Muslim World. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-257-9.
- Ahmed, Imad-ad-Dean (2006). Signs in the heavens. 2. Amana Publications. ISBN 1-59008-040-8.
- Bennett, Clinton (2010). Interpreting the Qur'an: a guide for the uninitiated. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-8264-9944-8.
- Blankinship, K. (2008). "The early creed". In T. Winter (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 33–54. doi:10.1017/CCOL9780521780582.003. ISBN 9780521780582.
- Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: abortion, war and euthanasia. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-471-8.
- Burge, Stephen (2015). Angels in Islam: Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti's al-Haba'ik fi akhbar al-mala'ik. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-50473-0.
- Çakmak, Cenap (2017). Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia. 4 volumes. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-217-5.
- Campo, Juan E. (2009). Encyclopedia of Islam. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8160-5454-1.
- Chittick, William C (2008). Sufism: A Beginner's Guide. ISBN 978-1-78074-052-2. Retrieved 17 January 2015.
- Cohen-Mor, Dalya (2001). A Matter of Fate: The Concept of Fate in the Arab World as Reflected in Modern Arabic Literature. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513398-1.
- Curtis, Patricia A. (2005). A Guide to Food Laws and Regulations. Blackwell Publishing Professional. ISBN 978-0-8138-1946-4.
- Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4.
- —, ed. (1999). The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9.
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- — (2011). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-979413-3.Lay summary
- Esposito, John; Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck (2000). Muslims on the Americanization Path?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513526-8.
- Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0-8120-1853-0.
- — (2003). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (7th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0-7641-2226-2.
- Firestone, Reuven (1999). Jihad: The Origin of Holy War in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512580-1.
- Ghamidi, Javed (2001). Mizan (in Urdu) (1st ed.). Lahore: Daru’l-Ishraq. OCLC 52901690.
- Goldschmidt, Jr., Arthur; Davidson, Lawrence (2005). A Concise History of the Middle East (8th ed.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4275-7.
- Griffith, Ruth Marie; Savage, Barbara Dianne (2006). Women and Religion in the African Diaspora: Knowledge, Power, and Performance. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8370-5.
- Haddad, Yvonne Yazbeck; Smith, Jane I. (2002). Muslims in the West: Visible and Invisible. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira.
- Hawting, G. R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-24073-4.
- Hedayetullah, Muhammad (2006). Dynamics of Islam: An Exposition. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-55369-842-5.
- Hofmann, Murad (2007). Islam and Qur'an. ISBN 978-1-59008-047-4.
- Holt, P.M.; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29136-1.
- Holt, P.M.; Lambton, Ann K.S.; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29137-8.
- Holt, P.M.; Lambton, Ann K.S.; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (2000). The Cambridge History of Islam. 1A. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21946-4.
- Hourani, Albert (2002). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01017-8.
- Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar Ibn Kathīr (2012). The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah. Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad. Riyadh: Maktaba Dar-us-Salam. ISBN 978-603-500-080-2.
- Kobeisy, Ahmed Nezar (2004). Counseling American Muslims: Understanding the Faith and Helping the People. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-313-32472-7.
- Kramer, Martin (1987). Shi'Ism, Resistance, and Revolution. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-0453-3.
- Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3.
- Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-7102-0462-2.
- — (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-285258-8.
- — (1997). The Middle East. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-83280-7.
- — (2001). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East (2nd ed.). Open Court Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8126-9518-2.
- — (2003). What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (reprint ed.). Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-051605-5.
- — (2004). The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror. Random House, Inc., New York. ISBN 978-0-8129-6785-2.
- Madelung, Wilferd (1996). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64696-3.
- Malik, Jamal; Hinnells, John R. (2006). Sufism in the West. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-27408-1.
- Mababaya, Mamarinta P. International Business Success in a Strange Cultural Environment (Thesis).[full citation needed]
- Menski, Werner F. (2006). Comparative Law in a Global Context: The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85859-5.
- Momen, Moojan (1987). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5.
- Nasr, Seyed Hossein (2003). The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity.
- Nasr, Seyed Muhammad (1994). Our Religions: The Seven World Religions Introduced by Preeminent Scholars from Each Tradition (Chapter 7). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-067700-8.
- Nigosian, Solomon Alexander (2004). Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21627-4.
- Patton, Walter M. (1900). The Doctrine of Freedom in the Korân. The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures. 16. p. 129. doi:10.1086/369367. ISBN 978-90-04-10314-6. S2CID 144087031.
- Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5.
- Pew Forum for Religion & Public Life (October 2009). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population (PDF) (Report). Pew Research Center. Retrieved 25 May 2020. Overview.
- Rahman, H. U. (1999). Chronology of Islamic History, 570–1000 CE (3rd ed.). Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd.
- Rippin, Andrew (2001). Muslims: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-21781-1.
- Serjeant, R.B. (1978). "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. Cambridge University Press. 41: 1–42. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00057761.
- Sachedina, Abdulaziz (1998). The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0-19-511915-2.
- Siljander, Mark D., and John David Mann (2008). A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide (1st ed.). New York: HarperOne. ISBN 978-0-06-143828-8
- Smith, Jane I. (2006). The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515649-2.
- Stefon, Matt, ed. (2010). Islamic Beliefs and Practices. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing. ISBN 978-1-61530-060-0.
- Ṭabāṭabāʼī, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Translated by Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-87395-272-9.
- Teece, Geoff (2003). Religion in Focus: Islam. Franklin Watts Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7496-4796-4.
- Trimingham, John Spencer (1998). The Sufi Orders in Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512058-5.
- Turner, Colin (2006). Islam: the Basics. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-34106-6.
- Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-17458-9.
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- Watt, W. Montgomery (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh. ISBN 978-0-85224-245-2.
- — (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (New ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-881078-0.
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Encyclopedias and Dictionaries
- Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. "Islām". In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0387
- William H. McNeill; Jerry H. Bentley; David Christian, eds. (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-9743091-0-1.
- Oussani, Gabriel, ed. (1911). The Catholic Encyclopedia. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- Lagasse, Paul; Goldman, Lora; Hobson, Archie; Norton, Susan R., eds. (2000). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Gale Group. ISBN 978-1-59339-236-9.
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
- Fahlbusch, Erwin; et al., eds. (1999). The Encyclopedia of Christianity. 1 (1st ed.). Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8028-2414-1.
- Fahlbusch, Erwin; et al., eds. (2001). The Encyclopedia of Christianity. 2. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-11695-5.
- John Bowden, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-522393-4.
- Houtsma, M.T.; Arnold, T.W.; Basset, R.; Hartmann, R., eds. (1913–1936). Encyclopaedia of Islam (1st ed.). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-08265-6.
- Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (2012). "Encyclopaedia of Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. ISSN 1573-3912.
- Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (n.d.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
- Martin, Richard C., ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Macmillan Reference Books. Thomson-Gale. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8.
- McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (n.d.). Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an Online. Brill Academic Publishers.
- McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (2002). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. 2. Brill Academic Publishers.
- McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (2003). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. 3. Brill Academic Publishers.
- Salamone, Frank, ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals. Routledge Encyclopedias of Religion and Society. 6 (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94180-8. JSTOR j.ctt1jd94wq.
- Glassé, Cyril, ed. (2003). The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. ISBN 978-0-7591-0190-6.
- Esposito, John, ed. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001 – via Oxford Reference.
- Esposito, John, ed. (2004). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-975726-8.
- Leaman, Oliver, ed. (2006). The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1.
Further reading
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel guides from Wikivoyage
Resources from Wikiversity
Data from Wikidata
- Encyclopedia of Sahih Al-Bukhari by Arabic Virtual Translation Center (New York 2019, Barnes & Noble ISBN 978-0-359-67265-3). The foundation of Islam: from revelation to tawhid.
- Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim. Minneapolis: Bethany House Publishers. N.B. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur'an, and this religion's affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to "dialogue" on the basis of what both faiths really teach. ISBN 0-87123-553-6
- Ahmad, Imad-ad-Dean (2008). "Islam". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 256–258. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n155. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
- Akyol, Mustafa (2011). Islam Without Extremes (1st ed.). W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-07086-6.
- Arberry, A.J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0-684-82507-6.
- Cragg, Kenneth (1975). The House of Islam, in The Religious Life of Man Series. Second ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company 1975. xiii, 145 p. ISBN 0-8221-0139-4.
- Hourani, Albert (1991). Islam in European Thought. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. ISBN 0-521-42120-9; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0.
- Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan; Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.). Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960-740-79-9.
- Khanbaghi, A, (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. I. B. Tauris.
- Khavari, Farid A. (1990). Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. ISBN 0-915677-55-5.
- Kramer, Martin, ed. (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-965-224-040-8.
- Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-03813-4.
- Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509061-1.
- Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510283-3.
- Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-071-0.
- Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-034-5.
- Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70281-0.
- Schimmel, Annemarie (1994). Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1982-3.
- Tausch, Arno (2009). What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the "World Values Survey". Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1.
- Tausch, Arno; Heshmati, Almas; Karoui, Hichem (2015). The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world (1st ed.). New York: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-62948-899-8. Prepublication text available at: Tausch, Arno; Heshmati, Almas; Karoui, Hichem (January 2014). "The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world". ResearchGate.
- Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7206-1038-3.
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